Kids Research Express

Rye

2011-02-19T05:00:00.001-08:00

Rye, cereal grain of the family Gramineae (grass family). The grain, Secale cereale, is important chiefly in Central and N Europe. It seems to have been domesticated later than wheat and other staple grains; cultivated rye is quite similar to the wild forms and no traces of it have been found among Egyptian ruins or Swiss lake dwellings. Where it grows well, wheat is preferred, but rye will produce a good crop on soil too poor or in a climate too cool to produce a good crop of wheat. The standard schwarzbrot, or pumpernickel, of Europe was formerly the major rye product. A bread of lighter color, called rye bread, is made of rye flour mixed with wheat flour. Today rye is used mostly as a stock feed (usually mixed with other grains), for hay and pasturage, for green manure, and as a cover crop. Russia leads in world production. Rye is much used as a distillers' grain in making whisky and gin. The tough straw of rye is valued for many purposes, e.g., thatching for roofs and stuffing for horse collars. Ergot is a fungus disease of rye; the fungus is poisonous and may make the rye unsafe to use. Wild rye and lyme grass are names for several grasses of the genus Elymus, some of which are occasionally planted as ornamentals or used for binding sand. Rye is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Liliatae, order Cyperales, family Gramineae.

Shadbush

2011-02-19T04:49:00.000-08:00

Shadbush, Juneberry, or serviceberry, any species of the genus Amelanchier of the family Rosaceae (rose family), chiefly North American shrubs or trees conspicuous in the early spring for their white blossoms. The bush is more often called shadbush on the East Coast (it is said to bloom when the shad are running); serviceberry is in general a Western name. The huckleberrylike fruits of native species were eaten by the Native Americans and are still sometimes collected. They are an important wildlife food. Some kinds of shadbush are cultivated for ornament. The wood is very hard. Shadbushes are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Cinquefoil

2011-02-19T04:40:00.000-08:00

Cinquefoil (sĭngk`foil) [O.Fr.,=five leaves], name for any plant of the widely distributed genus Potentilla of the family Rosaceae (rose family), chiefly herbs of north temperate and subarctic regions. Most cinquefoils are perennial; many but not all of them have leaves of five leaflets, for which they are also called five-finger. The flowers are most often yellow. Most North American species are native to cooler regions of the W United States. The shrubby cinquefoil (P. fruticosa) and the silverweed (P. anserina) are common wildflowers in the West and the Northeast; they are thought to be naturalized from the Old World. These and other species are sometimes cultivated in rock gardens. Silverweed is one of the species reputed to have medicinal powers, hence the Latin name of the genus [potens=powerful]. Cinquefoil is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Strawberry

2011-02-19T04:35:00.000-08:00

Strawberry, any plant of the genus Fragaria of the family Rosaceae (rose family), low herbaceous perennials with edible red fruits, native to temperate and mountainous tropical regions. The European everbearing strawberry (F. vesca) is the only species that does not put out the stolons typical of this easily propagated genus. It has been cultivated sporadically since pre-Christian times but intensively only since the 15th cent. The common strawberry, grown in many varieties in both Europe and America, is Fragaria × Ananassa, the result of the hybridization of F. chiloensis, believed to be indigenous to Chile and to the mountains of W North America, with the wild strawberry (F. virginiana) of E North America. Both species were introduced to Europe by New World explorers; the large French industry grew from a single common strawberry plant. Strawberries are sold fresh, frozen, or in preserves and are used in confectionery and for flavoring. Strawberries are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Bramble

2011-02-19T04:29:00.000-08:00

Bramble, name for plants of the genus Rubus [Lat.,=red, for the color of the juice]. This complex genus of the family Rosaceae (rose family), with representatives in many parts of the world, includes the blackberries, raspberries, loganberries, boysenberries, and dewberries. The plants are typically shrubs with prickly stems (called "canes") and edible fruits that botanically are not berries but aggregates of drupelets (see fruit). The underground parts of brambles are perennial and the canes biennial; only second-year canes bear flowers and fruits. Innumerable horticultural varieties have been bred. The native American black raspberry, or blackcap (R. occidentalis), and red raspberry (R. strigosus) as well as the European red raspberry (R. idaeus) are all cultivated in North America, chiefly in the Northeast. Numerous blackberry species and varieties are cultivated in many regions, particularly in the south central states. Closely resembling the blackberries, except for a more trailing or prostrate habit and a larger fruit, are the dewberries; the most common North American species (R. procumbens) is sometimes called running blackberry. The loganberries and boysenberries, with tart purplish fruits, are thought to be strains of either a variety of the Pacific dewberry (R. ursinus) or a hybrid between it and the red raspberry; the original plant appeared in the California orchard of Judge J. H. Logan in 1881. Bramble berries were eaten by the Native Americans. Berries are grown commercially in Europe and North America for sale as fresh, canned, and frozen fruit and for use in numerous types of preserves and fruit-flavored beverages and liqueurs. In England the name bramble is applied chiefly to the common wild blackberry. Other thorny shrubs are sometimes also called brambles. Brambles are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Blackberry

2011-02-19T04:25:00.000-08:00

Blackberry, usually prickly, fruit-bearing bush of the genus Rubus, in the rose family, native chiefly to northern temperate regions. The blackberry is abundant in eastern North America and on the Pacific coast; in Europe it is common in thickets and hedges. Its usually biennial, prickly, and erect, semierect, or trailing stems bear leaves with usually three or five oval, coarsely toothed, stalked leaflets; white, pink, or red flowers in terminal clusters; and black or red-purple aggregate fruits. The several trailing species are commonly called dewberries. Blackberries are a fairly good source of iron and vitamin C.

Raspberry

2011-02-19T04:20:00.000-08:00

Raspberry, any of many species of fruit-bearing bushes of the genus Rubus in the rose family. When picked, the juicy red, purple, or black berry separates from a core, whereas in the related blackberry the core is part of the fruit. Both so-called berries are actually aggregate fruits. Red raspberries are propagated by suckers from the roots of the parent plant or from root cuttings. Black and purple varieties have arched canes and are propagated by layering of the shoot tips. Raspberries contain iron and vitamin C. They are eaten fresh and are also very popular in jams, as a pastry filling, and as a flavouring for liqueurs.

Quince

2011-02-19T04:13:00.000-08:00

Quince, shrub or small tree of the Asian genera Chaenomeles and Cydonia of the family Rosaceae (rose family). The common quince (Cydonia oblonga) is a spineless tree with edible fruits cultivated from ancient times in Asia and in the Mediterranean area, where it was early naturalized. Its pome fruit is similar to that of the related apple and pear but is very astringent, and hence it is used chiefly cooked in preserves; marmalade is said to have first been made from quince. As a commercial fruit tree, the quince is cultivated more widely in the temperate zone of Europe than in the United States, where it is grown chiefly in California and New York. It is often used as a rootstock for dwarf fruit trees, especially the pear. The flowering quinces (genus Chaenomeles) are cultivated as ornamental shrubs for their profuse, usually thorny branches and attractive scarlet, pink, or white flowers. The fruit is too small and hard to be of commercial value but is sometimes used locally. Best known of this genus is C. lagenaria, the Japanese quince, or japonica. Some other Asian shrubs (e.g., a camellia) are also called japonica. Quince is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Loquat

2011-02-19T04:06:00.000-08:00

Loquat (lō`kwŏt), small ornamental evergreen tree (Eriobotrya japonica) and its fruit. It belongs to the family Rosaceae (rose family) and is probably indigenous to China. It has been grown from antiquity in Japan and N India and is cultivated also in Indochina, the Mediterranean region, and to some extent in the New World subtropics. The yellowish, oval fruits are borne in clusters and taste somewhat like apples or pears but are slightly tart. They are commonly eaten fresh but are used also for making jam, jelly, pie, and sauces. Sometimes the loquat is called Japanese medlar, probably because it somewhat resembles the medlar of Europe and Asia. The loquat is one of the few important fruit trees of the tropics belonging to the rose family. Loquat is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Apricot

2011-02-19T03:43:00.000-08:00

Apricot [Arabic from Lat.,=early ripe], tree, Prunus armeniaca, and its fruit, of the plum genus of the family Rosaceae (rose family), native to temperate Asia and long cultivated in Armenia. The fruit is used raw, canned, preserved, and dried. California is the chief place of cultivation in the United States, although by selecting suitable varieties the apricot can be grown in most regions where the peach is hardy. Apricots are used in the making of a cordial and also for apricot brandy. A number of apricot-plum hybrids, such as the plumcot, Pluot, and Aprium, have been developed. Apricots are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Cherry

2011-02-19T03:28:00.000-08:00

Cherry, name for several species of trees or shrubs of the genus Prunus (a few are sometimes classed as Padus) of the family Rosaceae (rose family) and for their fruits. The small, round red to black fruits are botanically designated drupes, or stone fruits, as are those of the closely related peach, apricot, and plum. The cherry is one of the most commonly grown home-orchard fruits. About 600 varieties are cultivated, practically all derived from two species—P. avium (sweet cherries) and P. cerasus (sour cherries). Both are believed to be native to Asia Minor and have long been cultivated; they were mentioned in the writings of the ancients. Sour cherries are hardier and more easily grown than sweet cherries and are mostly self-fertile, while many sweet cherries must be cross-pollinated to bear well. The fruit is popular raw, in preserves, and in pies; cherry cider and liqueurs are also made. Europe is the largest producing area. Several species of the flowering cherry, many native to East Asia, are cultivated as weeping or erect trees for their beautiful, usually double flowers. The Japanese make a national festival of cherry-blossom time; the city of Tokyo presented a number of trees to Washington, D.C., where they have become a popular spring attraction.

The species of American wild cherry include the chokecherry, pin cherry, and wild, black cherry. These have smaller fruits than the cultivated cherries and are seldom used except for jelly. Wood of the wild, black cherry, or rum cherry (P. serotina), usually reddish in color, is fine grained and of high quality. It takes a high polish and is prized for cabinetwork. The aromatic bark and leaves contain hydrocyanic acid, characteristic of many cherries.

The cherry laurel (P. laurocerasus or Laurocerasus officinalis) is an Old World evergreen species cultivated elsewhere in many varieties as an ornamental. The leaves are sometimes used as a flavoring and in making cherry laurel water. The American cherry laurel (P. or L. caroliniana), called mock orange in the South, is similar but larger.

Cherries are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Pear

2011-02-19T03:14:00.000-08:00

Pear, name for a fruit tree of the genus Pyrus of the family Rosaceae (rose family) and for its fruit, a pome. The common pear (P. communis) is one of the earliest cultivated of fruit trees, both in its native W Asia and in Europe. Most of the pear strains grown for their sweet and juicy fruit are varieties of P. communis or of its hybrids with other species of Pyrus—usually P. pyrifolia, known as the Japanese, Chinese, or sand pear and indigenous to China. The main use of the sand pear today is as a rootstock in pear orchards; the related quince is used for the same purpose. Pear strains with fruit of really good eating quality were not developed until the 18th and 19th cent. in N Europe, whence almost all the present successful varieties (e.g., the Bartlett and Seckel) grown in the United States (chiefly on the Pacific coast and in the Great Lakes area) were directly imported. European production is far greater—especially in Germany, France, and Switzerland, where much of the crop is used for making pear cider (perry). Pears are also cultivated on a large scale in Japan, Turkey, Argentina, and Australia. They are usually sold fresh or canned; some are dried. Several varieties of the common pear and of other species—e.g., the small, white-foliaged snow pear (P. nivalis)—are cultivated as ornamentals, and pear wood, hard and dense, is used to a limited extent in cabinetmaking. The pear tree and its fruit are similar to the closely related apple (considered by some botanists to be of the same genus) in characteristics and in method of cultivation, but the tree is somewhat less hardy and the fruit more perishable. Pear or fire blight is the tree's most serious disease; it is also attacked by several insect pests. Pears are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Figwort

2011-02-18T04:28:00.000-08:00

Figwort, common name for some members of the Scrophulariaceae, a family comprising chiefly herbs and small shrubs and distributed widely over all continents. The family includes a few climbing types and some parasitic and saprophytic forms.

Common Species and Their Uses

Among its many wildflowers are several European species that have been introduced to America and become thoroughly naturalized, e.g., the mulleins (genus Verbascum), the common speedwell (Veronica officinalis), and the butter-and-eggs (Linaria vulgaris). The common mullein (V. thapsus), also called flannel plant and torches, was formerly a favorite multipurpose medicinal plant; it is still occasionally used for domestic remedies, e.g., as a tea for coughs. Its large stalks are said to have been oiled and used for funeral torches in early times. The speedwells, of which several species are native to the United States, are also called veronica, supposedly because of a resemblance of the flower to the relic (see veronica). Culver's root (V. virginica) has been used as a cathartic.

Butter-and-eggs, or yellow toadflax, has small snapdragonlike flowers of yellow and orange and is consequently known also as wild snapdragon. Among the other toadflaxes (genus Linaria) is the well-known American species, blue toadflax. Other indigenous wildflowers of the family include species of beardtongue, or pentstemon (genus Pentstemon); gerardia, or false purple foxglove (Gerardia) [for John Gerard]; painted cup, or Indian paintbrush (Castilleja); and figwort (Scrophularia). The beardtongues, herbs or shrubs, are named for the flower's single sterile stamen that is bearded at its flattened extremity. The roots of the painted cups, chiefly a Western genus, are partially parasitic on the roots of other green plants. Their true flowers are inconspicuous but are commonly enveloped by bright red flowerlike bracts. C. linariaefolia is the state flower of Wyoming. The name Scrophularia derives from the early belief that because the figworts are characterized by deep-throated flowers, they should be medicinally valuable in treating throat ailments (e.g., scrofula).

Many plants of the family are used medicinally; however, only the purple foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) of W Europe is economically important. Its leaves are the source of the drug digitalis, a powerful heart stimulant. The foxglove's tall spire of flowers, typical of many members of the family, makes it popular also as an ornamental. Each blossom, likened to the finger of a glove or to an elongated bell, points downward from the stalk. In England, where it grows wild, the plant has long been associated with fairies—as evidenced by many of its common names, e.g., fairy thimbles.

Numerous other plants of the family also have curious names derived from their unusual flower shapes—e.g., the turtle heads (Chelone) and monkey flowers (Mimulus) of North America and the little red elephants (Pedicularis groenlandica) of arctic and alpine regions. A favorite cultivated plant is the snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), native to the Mediterranean area. Its showy blossoms, likened to a dragon's snout, display a wide range of colors in the many varieties. Other ornamentals of the family include the Kenilworth ivy (Cymbalaria muralis), introduced into North America, and the calceolaria, or slipperwort (genus Calceolaria), herbs and shrubby plants of South America valued for their profusion of pouch-shaped, often spotted blossoms.

Classification

Figworts are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Scrophulariales.

Rhizome

2011-02-18T04:10:00.001-08:00

Rhizome (rī`zōm) or rootstock, fleshy, creeping underground stem by means of which certain plants propagate themselves. Buds that form at the joints produce new shoots. Thus if a rhizome is cut by a cultivating tool it does not die, as would a root, but becomes several plants instead of one, which explains why such weeds as Canada thistle and crabgrass are so hard to eradicate. Ginger, the common iris, trillium, and Solomon's-seal all have rhizomes. True arrowroot is starch from the rhizome of a West Indian plant. See perennial.

Tuber, enlarged tip of a rhizome (underground stem) that stores food. Although much modified in structure, the tuber contains all the usual stem parts—bark, wood, pith, nodes, and internodes. The eyes of a potato tuber are nodes where sprouts appear, and they are arranged in the same spiral pattern characteristic of buds on an aerial stem.

Oak

2011-02-18T04:04:00.000-08:00

Oak, any tree or shrub of the genus Quercus of the family Fagaceae (beech family). This complex genus includes as many as 600, found chiefly in north temperate zones and also in Polynesia. The more southerly species, ranging into the tropics, are usually evergreen. Oaks are cultivated for ornament and are prized as the major source of hardwood lumber. The wood is durable, tough, and attractively grained; it is especially valued in shipbuilding and construction and for flooring, furniture, railroad ties, barrels, tool handles, and veneer (particularly highly burled oak). The oaks are commonly divided into two groups, the black (or red) and the white. The former (e.g., the scarlet, pin, Spanish, willow, laurel, and shingle oaks) are characterized by leaves with sharp-tipped lobes and by acorns that mature in two years. The white oaks (e.g., the white, post, bur, cork, and holly oaks) are characterized by smooth-lobed leaves and acorns that mature in one year. Q. alba, the white oak, is the most important timber tree of the oak genus. Lumber-yielding species of chestnut (genus Castanea) are included in the white oak group when the term is used as a timber classification. The live oaks, evergreen species common in the S and SW United States, are sometimes considered a separate group. The bark of some oaks has been employed in medicine, in tanning, and for dyes; that of the cork oak supplies the cork of commerce. The galls caused by certain insects are utilized commercially. The Mediterranean kermes oak (Q. coccifera) is host to the kermes insect, source of the world's oldest dyestuff. Acorns, the fruit of oak trees, have long been employed as a source of hog feed, tannin (chiefly from valonia, the acorn cup of the Turkish oak, Q. aegilops), oil, and especially food. Acorns were one of the most important foods of the North American forest Native Americans; they were pulverized, leached to extract the bitter taste, and then cooked in various ways. Acorns have also been used as food in other regions where they are native. A symbol of strength, the oak has been revered for both historical and mythological associations. It was the favorite of Jove and Thor and especially sacred to the druids. St. Louis administered justice under an oak, and the Charter Oak is legendary in America. Several unrelated plants are also called oak, e.g., the Jerusalem oak (a lobe-leaved annual of the goosefoot family) and the poison oak of the sumac family (see poison ivy). Oaks are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Fagales, family Fagaceae.

Celery

2011-02-18T03:49:00.001-08:00

Celery, biennial plant (Apium graveolens) of the family Umbelliferae (parsley family), of wide distribution in the wild state throughout the north temperate Old World and much cultivated also in America. It was first cultivated as a medicinal, then (during the Middle Ages) as a flavoring, and finally as a food, chiefly for soups and salads. The seeds are still used for seasoning. Celeriac is a variety cultivated chiefly in N Europe for the large edible turniplike root. Celery is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Umbellales, family Umbelliferae.

Parsnip

2011-02-18T03:47:00.000-08:00

Parsnip, garden plant (Pastinaca sativa) of the family Umbelliferae (parsley family), native to the Old World. It has been cultivated since Roman times for its long, fleshy, edible root. Wine and beer have also been made from it. The wild form has become naturalized in North America, often proving a noxious weed. Parsnip is a biennial but is cultivated as an annual. The root can be left in the ground all winter without deterioration. It is also used as livestock feed. Parsnip is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Apiales, family Umbelliferae.

Carrot

2011-02-18T03:43:00.000-08:00

Carrot, common name for some members of the Umbelliferae, a family (also called the parsley family) of chiefly biennial or perennial herbs of north temperate regions. Most are characterized by aromatic foliage, a dry fruit that splits when mature, and an umbellate inflorescence (a type of flattened flower cluster in which the stems of the small florets arise from the same point, like an umbrella). The seeds or leaves of many of these herbs have been used for centuries for seasoning or as greens (e.g., angelica, anise, caraway, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, lovage, and parsley). The carrot, celery, and parsnip are vegetables of commercial importance. The common garden carrot (Daucus carota sativa) is a root crop, probably derived from some variety of the wild carrot (or Queen Anne's lace). In antiquity several types of carrot were grown as medicinals, and in Europe carrots have long been grown for use in soups and stews. The custom of eating carrots raw as a salad has become widespread in the 20th cent. Carrots are a rich source of carotene (vitamin A), especially when they are cooked. Several types of carrot have also been cultivated since ancient times as aromatic plants. Some are still planted as fragrant garden ornamentals, such as the button snakeroot and sweet cicely. A few members of the Umbelliferae produce lethal poison; it was one of these, the poison hemlock, that Socrates was compelled to take. The water hemlock is also poisonous. Carrots are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Umbellales, family Umbelliferae.

Watercress

2011-02-18T03:36:00.001-08:00

Watercress, hardy perennial European herb (Nasturtium officinale) of the family Cruciferae (mustard family), widely naturalized in North America, found in or around water. Often cultivated commercially for the small, pungent leaflets, it is used as a peppery salad green or garnish. Other plants of the genus are sometimes called watercress and are used similarly. Watercress was formerly used as a domestic remedy and against scurvy. The ornamental plant whose common name is nasturtium is unrelated. Watercress is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Capparales, family Cruciferae.

Radish

2011-02-18T03:35:00.000-08:00

Radish, herbaceous plant (Raphanus sativus) belonging to the family Cruciferae (mustard family), with an edible, pungent root sliced in salads or used as a relish. It is thought to be native to China; it spread to the Mediterranean area before Greek times and to the New World in the early 16th cent. There are many varieties, with white, red, or black roots of different shapes and sizes, some quite large. Radishes grow easily and quickly throughout temperate regions; they are a staple food in Japan and China, where they are generally pickled in brine. Radishes are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Capparales, family Cruciferae.

Turnip

2011-02-18T03:33:00.000-08:00

Turnip, garden vegetable of the same genus of the family Cruciferae (mustard family) as the cabbage; native to Europe, where it has been long cultivated. The two principal kinds are the white (Brassica rapa) and the yellow (B. napobrassica), which is known as the rutabaga, the Swedish turnip, or the swede. The rutabaga is grown extensively only in Europe, where it is believed to have originated during the Middle Ages as a cross between the white turnip and the cabbage. The turnip is one of the root crops used as a stock feed as well as for human food. The green leaves (greens) are often cooked like spinach. The turnip is a biennial cool-weather crop, grown mostly in cool climates. The worst turnip pests are the root maggot and the flea beetle; it is also attacked by clubroot fungus. Turnips are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Capparales, family Cruciferae.

Cabbage

2011-02-18T03:07:00.001-08:00

Cabbage, leafy garden vegetable of many widely dissimilar varieties, all probably descended from the wild, or sea, cabbage (Brassica oleracea) of the family Cruciferae (mustard family), found on the coasts of Europe. It is used for food for man and stock, mostly in Europe and North America. Well-known varieties of the species include the cabbages, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, collards, kale, and kohlrabi. All grow best in cool, moist climates. They are attacked mostly by insect pests. The true cabbages (var. capitata) include the white and red types and the Savoy type (grown mostly in Europe), with curly, loose leaves. Inexpensive and easily stored, cabbage is important in the diet of many poorer peoples. Popular cabbage dishes include sauerkraut and slaw (raw cabbage). Chinese cabbage, or petsai, chiefly a salad plant, is a separate species (B. pekinensis) grown in many varieties, especially in East Asia. Cabbages with multicolored leaves are becoming popular as ornamental border plants for flower gardens. Cabbages are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Capparales, family Cruciferae.

Cauliflower (kô`lĭflou'ər, käl`ĭ–), variety of cabbage, with an edible head of condensed flowers and flower stems. Broccoli is the horticultural variety (botrytis); both were cultivated in Roman times. Cauliflower is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Capparales, family Cruciferae

Brussels sprouts, variety (gemmifera) of cabbage producing small edible heads (sprouts) along the stem. It is cultivated like cabbage and was first developed in Belgium and France in the 18th cent. Brussels sprouts are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Capparales, family Cruciferae.

Broccoli (brŏk`əlē) [Ital.,=sprouts], variety of cabbage grown for the edible immature flower panicles. It is the same variety (Brassica oleracea botrytis) as the cauliflower and is similarly cultivated. Although known to the Romans, it became generally popular in the United States only in the 20th cent. Broccoli is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Capparales, family Cruciferae.

Kohlrabi (kōl`rä`bē) [Ger. partly from Ital.,=turnip cabbage], plant (Brassica caulorapa, sometimes classified as var. caulorapa of the cabbage species) of the family Cruciferae (mustard family), with an edible, turniplike, swollen stem. It is a cool-weather plant grown more in Europe, where some varieties are used for fodder, than in America. The flavor is more delicate than that of some of the other cabbage plants. Kohlrabi is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Capparales, family Cruciferae.

Lavender

2011-02-18T03:04:00.000-08:00

Lavender, common name for any plant of the genus Lavandula, herbs or shrubby plants of the family Labiatae (mint family), most of which are native to the Mediterranean region but naturalized elsewhere. The true lavender (L. officinalis) has grayish foliage and small blue or pale purplish flowers (white in one variety). It is popular for herb gardens and is cultivated commercially or, more commonly, gathered wild for the fragrant flowers, valued for scenting linens and clothes and as the source of oil of lavender. The oil is distilled for use in perfumery, in toilet preparations (e.g., lavender water). Lavender is sometimes used as a flavoring. Spike lavender (L. latifolia), a broader-leaved, less fragrant species, yields spike-lavender oil, which is also used in perfumery and in varnishes and porcelain painting. Lavender is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Lamiales, family Labiatae.

Thyme

2011-02-18T02:59:00.000-08:00

Thyme (tīm), any species of the genus Thymus, aromatic herbs or shrubby plants of the family Labiatae (mint family). The common thyme, which is used as a seasoning herb and yields a medicinal essential oil containing thymol, is the Old World T. vulgaris, an erect plant with grayish branches. It is cultivated mainly in Spain and in France. A compound derived from T. vulgaris, thymine, is used as a topical antifungal. The wild or creeping thyme, or mother-of-thyme (T. serpyllum), also used medicinally, is an Old World evergreen naturalized in North America and popular as a ground cover, edging, and rock plant. This was the wild thyme mentioned in Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream. The Greeks used thyme as a temple incense, and it has been prized since ancient times as a honey plant. Thyme is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Lamiales, family Labiatae.

Weed

2011-02-18T02:52:00.000-08:00

Weed, common term for any wild plant, particularly an undesired plant, growing in cultivated ground, where it competes with crop plants for soil nutrients and water. In their natural habitat, wildflowers and herbs not only provide beauty but function in many useful ways, e.g., as a source of food for insects and animals and to enrich the earth, loosen hard-packed soils, and help prevent erosion. However, when they invade cultivated areas they often interfere with the desired crop by appropriating space, sunlight, moisture, and soil nutrients. Weeds may also harbor and spread insect and fungus pests. Dried weeds along roadsides are often the starting point for brush and forest fires. Their habits of growth and of propagation must be considered in attempting to eradicate them. Control methods include continual soil cultivation, blanketing the soil with some material (e.g., mulch) to thwart weed growth, and the use of various herbicides (see spraying). Plants which are cultivated in one region may become weeds when introduced in another, e.g., the oxeye daisy, imported to the United States from Europe; the Russian thistle, called tumbleweed in America; and burdock, which in Japan is grown as a vegetable. Crabgrass and ragweed are weeds well known to gardeners and to hay-fever sufferers.

Garlic

2011-02-18T02:21:00.000-08:00

Garlic, bulbous perennial plant (Allium sativum) of the lily family, native to central Asia and growing wild in Italy and southern France. The bulbs are used as a flavouring. A classic ingredient in many national cuisines, garlic has a powerful onionlike aroma and pungent taste. Since ancient and medieval times it has been prized for its medicinal properties; it was formerly carried as a charm against vampires and other evils. Garlic bulbs are used sliced or crushed to flavour sauces, stews, and salad dressings. The membranous skin of the garlic bulb encloses up to 20 edible bulblets called cloves. See also allium.

Sesame

2011-02-18T02:17:00.000-08:00

Sesame (sĕs`əmē), herb (Sesamum indicum or orientale) cultivated for its seeds since ancient times, found chiefly in the tropics of Africa and Asia. Sesame seeds, also called bennes or gingellies, are black or white and yield an oil that resists turning rancid. The oil (known also as teel oil) is used extensively in India for cooking, soap manufacture, food, and medicine and as an adulterant for olive oil. The seeds are also popularly added to cookies and other baked goods and are made into candy (e.g., benne cakes). Sesame was introduced by African slaves to the U.S. South, where it sometimes becomes a weed. The sesame was once credited with mystic powers. Sesame is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Serophulariales, family Pedaliaceae.

Anise

2011-02-18T02:08:00.000-08:00

Anise (ăn`ĭs), annual plant (Pimpinella anisum) of the family Umbelliferae (parsley family), native to the Mediterranean region but long cultivated elsewhere for its aromatic and medicinal qualities. It has flat-topped clusters of small yellow or white flowers that become seedlike fruits—the aniseed of commerce, used in food flavoring. Anise oil is derived from the seeds and sometimes from the leaves. The oil, composed chiefly of anethole, is used in medicinals, dentifrices, perfumes, beverages, and, in drag hunting, to scent a trail for dogs in the absence of a fox. The anise of the Bible (Mat. 23.23) is dill, a plant of the same family. Anisette is an anise-flavored liqueur.

Star anise (Illicium verum), an unrelated, slow-growing evergreen tree native to SE China and NE Vietnam that can reach 60 ft (18 m) in height. The unripe, anise-flavored, star-shaped fruit of the tree is used whole or ground in Asian cooking as spice and in traditional Asian medicine. A compound extracted from the fruit is used to make the anti-influenza drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu).

Anise is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Apiales, family Umbelliferae. Star anise is classified in the class Magnoliopsida, order Illiciales, family Illiciaceae.

Tarragon

2011-02-18T02:03:00.000-08:00

Tarragon (târ`əgŏn), perennial aromatic Old World herb (Artemisia dracunculus) of the family Asteraceae (aster family), of the same genus as wormwood and sagebrush. It has long been cultivated in Europe and W Asia for its leaves, used for flavoring vinegar, salads, sauces, soups, and pickles. Its essential oil, sometimes called estragon, is occasionally used in perfume or, in the Old World, medicinally to stimulate appetite or as a diuretic. Tarragon is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Asterales, family Asteraceae.

Sage

2011-02-18T02:00:00.000-08:00

Sage, any species of the large genus Salvia, aromatic herbs or shrubs of the family Labiatae (mint family). The common sage of herb gardens is S. officinalis, a strongly scented shrubby perennial, native from S Europe to Asia Minor. The dried leaves are used as seasoning, especially in dressings for meat and poultry and also in sage cheese; sage tea, once popular as a beverage, has also been used as a domestic remedy for colds and other ailments and as a hair rinse; the oil is used in medicinals and flavorings and sometimes in perfumery. Prized since ancient times, common sage was thought to prolong life and to increase wisdom by strengthening the memory—whence the name. The ornamental sages are often popularly called salvia. Of these the scarlet sage (S. splendens), native to Brazil, is best known. Clary (S. sclarea), native from the Mediterranean region to Iran, is a biennial sage whose seeds were once used to "clear the eye"; it has bluish or pinkish flowers, and its oil is sometimes used similarly to that of the common sage. The seeds of some species of W North America, e.g., the thistle sage (S. carduacea) of California, were used by Native Americans for a flour and a beverage. Another species is S. carnosa, the purple sage of the western deserts. Most sages are good honey plants. One of the lantanas (see verbena) is sometimes called red or yellow sage. Sage is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Lamiales, family Labiatae.

Rosemary

2011-02-18T01:56:00.000-08:00

Rosemary [ultimately from Lat.,=dew of the sea], widely cultivated evergreen and shrubby perennial (Rosmarinus officinalis) of the family Labiatae (mint family), fairly hardy and native to the Mediterranean region. It has small light-blue flowers. The aromatic leaves, whitish beneath, are used for seasoning, and the oil is used in perfume and medicine. Rosemary is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Lamiales, family Labiatae.

Bamboo

2011-02-18T01:44:00.001-08:00

Bamboo, plant of the family Gramineae (grass family), chiefly of warm or tropical regions, where it is sometimes an extremely important component of the vegetation. It is most abundant in the monsoon area of E Asia. Bamboos are the the largest grasses, sometimes reaching 100 ft (30 m). The stalks are round (rarely square), jointed, sometimes thorny, and hollow or solid with evergreen or deciduous leaves. Some types die after fruiting and some do not flower until they are about 30 years old. In many places bamboo is used as wood for construction work, furniture, utensils, fiber, paper, fuel, and innumerable small articles. Bamboo sprouts are eaten as a vegetable, and the grains of some species are also utilized for food. The bamboo has long been used for decorative purposes, both in gardens and in art. In the United States the native bamboo is a cane. The most common bamboo is Bambusa arundinacea. Bamboo is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Lilopsida, order Cyperales, family Gramineae.

Sugarcane

2011-02-18T01:37:00.000-08:00

Sugarcane, tall tropical perennials (species of Saccharum, chiefly S. officinarum) of the family Gramineae (grass family), probably cultivated in their native Asia from prehistoric times. Sugarcane somewhat resembles corn and sorghum, with a large terminal panicle and a noded stalk. In biblical times, one of the known sweetening agents in the world was honey. It was not until the Middle Ages that the "Indian honey-bearing reed" was introduced to the Middle East and became accessible to Europe, where sugar was sold from druggists' shelves as a costly medicinal or luxury. Later, sugarcane plants were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese explorers of the 15th and 16th cent. throughout the Old and New World tropics, and the large cane industry rapidly took shape. Today, sugarcane and the sugar beet (see beet), a temperate plant developed as a commercial sugar source c.1800, are the only two major economic sources of sugar. Cuba and India together produce a large percentage of the world's tropical sugar, cane sugar. Cane is harvested by cutting down the plant stalks, which are then pressed several times to extract the juice. The juice is concentrated by evaporation into dark, sticky sugar, often sold locally. Refined sugar, less nourishing as food, is obtained by precipitating out the non-sugar components. Almost pure sucrose, it is the main commercial product. Byproducts obtained from sugarcane include molasses, rum, alcohol, fuel, livestock feed, and from the stalk residue, paper and wallboard. Sugarcane is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Liliopsida, order Cyperales, family Poaceae (Gramineae).

Cotton

2011-02-17T17:14:00.000-08:00

The cotton plant belongs to the genus Gossypium of the family Malvaceae (mallow family). It is generally a shrubby plant having broad three-lobed leaves and seeds in capsules, or bolls; each seed is surrounded with downy fiber, white or creamy in color and easily spun. The fibers flatten and twist naturally as they dry.

Cotton is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Malvales, family Malvaceae.

Cotton is of tropical origin but is most successfully cultivated in temperate climates with well-distributed rainfall. It is planted annually by seed in furrows; the plants are thinned and weeded during the spring growing season. Diseases and insect pests are numerous; of these the most destructive has been the boll weevil, which has caused enormous losses. Genetically altered strains of cotton are being developed that can resist infestation by some insects and damage by application of herbicides.

Mechanical harvesting is preceded by a chemical-defoliant spray to remove the leaves, leaving only the cotton bolls. In the ginhouse the cotton is separated from the seeds by a cotton gin and then baled. The manufacture of cotton cloth involves many processes—carding, combing, and spinning—which transform raw fiber into yarn or thread strong enough for weaving.

Innumerable commodities are made from cotton. From the lint (the fiber separated from the seed) come the major products, chiefly textile and yarn goods, cordage, automobile-tire cord, and plastic reinforcing. The linters (short, cut ends removed from the seed after ginning) are a valuable source of cellulose. Cotton hulls are used for fertilizer, fuel, and packing; fiber from the stalk is used for pressed paper and cardboard.

Tobacco

2011-02-17T17:05:00.000-08:00

Tobacco, name for any plant of the genus Nicotiana of the Solanaceae family (nightshade family) and for the product manufactured from the leaf and used in cigars and cigarettes, snuff, and pipe and chewing tobacco. Tobacco plants are also used in plant bioengineering, and some of the 60 species are grown as ornamentals. The chief commercial species, N. tabacum, is believed native to tropical America, like most nicotiana plants, but has been so long cultivated that it is no longer known in the wild. N. rustica, a mild-flavored, fast-burning species, was the tobacco originally raised in Virginia, but it is now grown chiefly in Turkey, India, and Russia. The alkaloid nicotine is the most characteristic constituent of tobacco and is responsible for its addictive nature. The possible harmful effects of the nicotine, tarry compounds, and carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke vary with the individual's tolerance.

Mistletoe

2010-11-30T19:48:00.000-08:00

Mistletoe, common name for the Loranthaceae, a family of chiefly tropical hemiparasitic herbs and shrubs with leathery evergreen leaves and waxy white berries. They have green leaves, but they manufacture only part of the nutrients they require. Mistletoes are aerial hemiparasites, attaching themselves to their hosts by modified roots called haustoria, with which they absorb water and food from the host. The list of hosts is varied and numerous. Mistletoes are widely used for Christmas decoration. The custom of kissing under a branch of mistletoe apparently originated among the Druids and other early Europeans, to whom mistletoe was sacred. From early times it has been associated with folklore and superstition; it was thought to cure many ills. The mistletoe most widely sold in America is Phoradendron flavescens; most popular in Europe is the "true" mistletoe, Viscum album of the related family Viscacceae, which is parasitic especially on apple trees. An American genus (Arceuthobium) with several species found along the Pacific coast is parasitic on conifers. The largest genus of the family, Loranthus, is predominantly African. The mistletoe family is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Santalales.

Cone

2010-11-30T19:43:00.000-08:00

Cone or strobilus (strŏb`ələs), in botany, reproductive organ of the gymnosperms (the conifers, cycads, and ginkgoes). Like the flower in the angiosperms (flowering plants), the cone is actually a highly modified branch; unlike the flower, it does not have sepals or petals. Usually separate male (staminate, or pollen) cones and female (ovulate, or seed) cones are borne on the same plant. Each of the numerous scales, or sporophylls, of the staminate cone bears pollen and each female-cone scale bears ovules in which egg cells are produced. In the pine, a conifer, the staminate cones are small and short-lived; they are borne in clusters at the top of the tree. At the time of pollination, enormous numbers of pollen grains are released and dispersed by wind; those that land accidentally on female-cone scales extend pollen tubes part way into the ovule during one growing season but usually do not reach the stage of actual fertilization until the next year. The cones that are commonly observed are the seed cones, which are normally hard and woody although in a few the scales are fleshy at maturity. The terms strobili and cones are also applied to the comparable and nonseed bearing structures of the horsetails and club mosses.

Pine

2010-11-30T19:39:00.000-08:00

Pine, common name for members of the Pinaceae, a family of resinous woody trees with needlelike, usually evergreen leaves. The Pinaceae reproduce by means of cones (see cone) rather than flowers and many have winged seeds, suitable for wind distribution. They are found chiefly in north temperate regions, where they form vast forests. The family was apparently more abundant in the mid-Cenozoic era, but it has maintained its population better than other gymnosperms because the trees are more adaptable to cold, dry climates; the reduced leaf surface and deep-set stomata minimize loss of water by transpiration. The family is the largest and most important of the conifers, providing naval stores, paper pulp, and more lumber by far than any other family. In some localities almost pure stands occur, permitting economical lumbering of large numbers of a given type of tree. Of the family's nine genera four are widely dispersed throughout North America and the Old World. Members of all nine genera are represented in horticulture as introduced timber trees or ornamentals. The so-called kauri pine, although pinelike in appearance, belongs to another family

Nectarine

2010-11-30T19:17:00.000-08:00

Nectarine, name for a tree (Prunus persica var. nectarina) of the family Rosaceae (rose family) and for its fruit, a smooth-skinned variety of the peach. The nectarine is a classical example of bud variation (see mutation). The nectarine tree occasionally produces peaches, and the peach tree nectarines. In appearance, culture, and care the nectarine is almost identical to the peach. It is cultivated in north temperate zones of both hemispheres, in America chiefly in the mild Pacific coastal area. The nectarine has been known for at least 2,000 years; in the 16th cent. it was called the nut of Persia. Nectarines are classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Rosales, family Rosaceae.

Plant Differentiation From Other Kingdoms

2010-10-26T17:23:00.000-07:00

Plants are multicellular eukaryotes—that is, their cells contain membrane-bound structures called organelles. Plants differ from other eukaryotes because their cells are enclosed by more or less rigid cell walls composed primarily of cellulose. The most important characteristic of plants is their ability to photosynthesize. During photosynthesis, plants make their own food by converting light energy into chemical energy—a process carried out in the green cellular organelles called chloroplasts (see Chlorophyll; Chloroplast). A few plants have lost their chlorophyll and have become saprophytes or parasites—that is, they absorb their food from dead organic matter or living organic matter, respectively—but details of their structure show that they are evolved plant forms.

Fungi, also eukaryotic and long considered members of the plant kingdom, have now been placed in a separate kingdom because they lack chlorophyll and plastids and because their rigid cell walls contain chitin rather than cellulose. Unlike the majority of plants, fungi do not manufacture their own food; instead they are saprophytic, absorbing their food from either dead or living organic matter.

The various groups of algae were also formerly placed in the plant kingdom because many are eukaryotic and because most have rigid cell walls and carry out photosynthesis. Nonetheless, because of the variety of pigment types, cell wall types, and physical attributes found in the algae, they are now recognized as part of two separate kingdoms, containing a diversity of plantlike and other organisms that are not necessarily closely related. One of the phyla of algae, the green algae, is believed to have given rise to the plant kingdom, because its chlorophylls, cell walls, and other details of cellular structure are similar to those of plants.

The animal kingdom is also multicellular and eukaryotic, but its members differ from the plants in deriving nutrition from other organic matter; by ingesting food rather than absorbing it, as in the fungi; by lacking rigid cell walls; and, usually, by having sensory capabilities and being motile, at least at some stage. See Classification.

Rice

2009-05-07T22:19:00.000-07:00

Rice, plant that produces an edible grain; the name is also used for the grain itself. Rice is the primary food for half the people in the world. In many regions it is eaten with every meal and provides more calories than any other single food.

A kernel or grain of rice is a seed that contains an embryonic rice plant. The hull, a hard protective covering, surrounds the bran, which consists of layers of fibrous tissue that contain protein, vitamins, minerals, and oil. Beneath the bran is the endosperm, which makes up most of the rice grain. The endosperm contains starch, the energy source used by the germinating seed. The bran and endosperm are the edible portions of the grain.

A rice plant, a type of grass, has narrow, tapered leaves and grows from about 60 to 180 cm (about 2 to 6 ft) tall. Several flower stalks emerge from the plant, and in most varieties, a loose cluster of branching stems, called a panicle, radiates from the top of each stalk with small green flowers hanging from each stem. When the grain has developed, the panicle droops under the weight of the ripened kernels. Depending on the variety, one panicle provides about two handfuls of rice.

Scientific classification: Rice is an annual grass in the grass family, Poaceae (formerly Gramineae). Asian rice is classified as Oryza sativa and African rice as Oryza glaberrima.

Corn Plant

2009-01-17T22:18:00.007-08:00

Corn or Maize, common name for the cereal grass widely grown for food and livestock fodder. Corn ranks with wheat and rice as one of the world’s chief grain crops.

The corn plant has an erect, solid stem, rather than the hollow one of most other grasses. It varies widely in height, some dwarf varieties being little more than 60 cm (2 ft) at maturity, whereas other types may reach heights of 6 m (20 ft) or more. The average is 2.4 m (8 ft). The leaves, which grow alternately, are long and narrow. The main stalk terminates in a staminate (male) inflorescence, or tassel. The tassel is made up of many small flowers termed spikelets, and each spikelet bears three small anthers, which produce the pollen grains, or male gametes. The pistillate (female) inflorescence or ear is a unique structure with up to 1,000 seeds borne on a hard core called the cob. The ear is enclosed in modified leaves called husks. The individual silk fibers that protrude from the tip of the ear are the elongated styles, each attached to an individual ovary. Pollen from the tassels is carried by the wind and falls onto the silks, where it germinates and grows down through the silk until it reaches the ovary. Each fertilized ovary grows and develops into a kernel.

Scientific classification: Corn is classified as Zea mays. The perennial wild corn thought to be extinct and rediscovered in Mexico is classified as Zea diploperennis.

Wheat

2009-01-17T22:18:00.005-08:00

Wheat, common name for cereal grasses of a genus of the grass family, cultivated for food since prehistoric times by the peoples of the temperate zones and now the most important grain crop of those regions (see Agriculture).

Wheat is a tall, annual plant attaining an average height of 1.2 m (4 ft). The leaves, which resemble those of other grasses, appear early and are followed by slender stalks terminating in spikes, or so-called ears, of grain.

CLASSIFICATION

Species of wheat are classified according to the number of chromosomes found in the vegetative cell. They are divided into three series: the diploid, or einkorn, containing 14 chromosomes; the tetraploid, or emmer, containing 28 chromosomes; and the hexaploid, containing 42 chromosomes. Wheat species crossbreed relatively frequently in nature. Selection of the best varieties for domestication took place over many centuries in many regions.

VARIETIES

According to the regions in which they are grown, certain types of wheat are chosen for their adaptability to altitude, climate, and yield. The common wheats grown in the former Soviet republics, the United States, and Canada are spring and winter wheats, planted either in the spring for summer harvest or in the fall for spring harvest. The color of the grain varies from one type to another; white wheats are mostly winter wheats, red are spring wheats. Closely related to the common wheats are the club wheats, which have especially compact spikes, and spelta (not grown in the United States), in which the glumes (reduced, scalelike leaves) tightly enclose the grains. Durum wheat (Latin durum, “hard”) is so called because of the hardness of the grain. It is grown in north-central regions of the United States. New high-yielding wheats were developed in the 1960s for use in developing countries, and research on them continued in the 1970s. Experimental programs have produced commercial wheat varieties for hardiness and disease resistance. In 1978 the identification of a drought-resistant, high-protein, ancestral species growing in the Middle East held promise of still more improved wheat varieties.

USES

The main use of wheat is in the manufacture of flour for bread and pastries. In general, hard varieties are used for bread flour and soft varieties for pastry flour. Wheat is used also in the production of breakfast foods and to a limited extent in the making of beer, whiskey, and industrial alcohol. Low grades of wheat, and by-products of the flour-milling, brewing, and distilling industries, are used as feed for livestock. A minor amount of wheat is used as a coffee substitute, especially in Europe, and wheat starch is employed as a sizing for textile fabrics.

Scientific classification: Wheat is a member of the family Poaceae (formerly Gramineae). It makes up the genus Triticum.

Plum

2009-01-17T22:18:00.003-08:00

Plum (tree), fruit tree of a genus of the rose family, which also contains the other trees that produce drupes (hard-pitted fruits): peach, cherry, almond, and apricot. About 12 plum species are cultivated throughout temperate regions for their fruit and as flowering ornamentals. The trees are rarely more than 10 m (33 ft) high. The plum varieties, which are suited to both warm and cool climates, exceed the other drupes.

The common European plum, the most important species, has been cultivated since ancient times and probably originated near the Caspian Sea. It was introduced into North America, possibly by the Pilgrims, and is now mostly cultivated in the western United States. Fruits of varieties of this species range in color from yellow or red to green, but purplish-blue is most common. Dried plums, or prunes, are made from the varieties that are richest in sugar and solids.

The Japanese plum, probably originating in China, was introduced into the United States in 1870. The fruit is more pointed at the apex than that of the common European plum, and its varieties are yellow or light red but never purplish-blue. The Damson plum—a small, oval, sweet fruit used mostly in jams—was first cultivated in ancient times in the region of Damascus.

Scientific classification: Plums belong to the genus Prunus of the family Rosaceae. The common European plum is classified as Prunus domestica, the Japanese plum as Prunus salicina, and the Damson plum as Prunus insititia.

Apple

2009-01-17T22:18:00.001-08:00

Apple, common name for certain related trees of the rose family, and for the pome fruit of the trees. The apple tree, a deciduous plant, grows mainly in the temperate areas of the world. The fruit is a firm, fleshy structure derived from the receptacle of the flower. Apple leaves are broadly oval in shape and are somewhat woolly on the undersides. The flowers in bloom have a rounded appearance. Some apple blossoms are white, but the majority of apple blossoms have stripes or tints of rose. A few apple species bloom with bright red flowers. Apple wood is hard, durable, and very fine-grained.

The physical characteristics of the fruit are subject to considerable variation. The skin color may range from green to a deep, blackish red. Shapes, also, are diverse and include oblate and oblong fruits and fruits of a size hardly larger than a cherry or as big as a medium-sized grapefruit.

Scientific classification: Apple trees belong to the family Rosaceae. They constitute the genus Malus.

Mango

2009-01-17T22:17:00.008-08:00

Mango, common name for a tree, and for its fruit. The tree, which is native to India, grows up to 15 m (50 ft) high, with spreading top and numerous branches. It is widely grown in the tropics for its succulent fruit. The fruit, which is a fleshy drupe, is somewhat kidney-shaped or oval, from 5 to 15 cm (2 to 6 in) in length; greenish, yellowish, or reddish in color; and contains a large flattened stone.

Scientific classification: The mango belongs to the family Anacardiaceae. It is classified as Mangifera indica.

Peach

2009-01-17T22:17:00.007-08:00

Peach, common name for a deciduous orchard tree of the rose family, and for the fruit of this tree. The tree, which botanists believe is native to China, is cultivated throughout warm temperate and subtropical regions of the world. In the peach fruit, the stone is covered with a fleshy substance that is juicy, melting, and of fine flavor when matured and mellowed. The peach tree is of moderate height, more or less spreading according to variety, and, when left to itself, deep-rooted. The popular division of fruit varieties into clingstones and freestones—referring to the relative tendency of the flesh to cling to the stone—is by no means accurate. These two classes merge in different varieties, and even the same variety may be freestone and clingstone in different seasons. The nearly 300 varieties of peaches grown in America have been classified into five races, each with outstanding characteristics, ripening season, and uses. The nectarine is a variety of peach.

The peach is not a long-lived tree, seldom living 30 years, and the life of a commercial orchard is usually 7 to 9 years. The principal peach-growing states are California, South Carolina, Georgia, and New Jersey.

Scientific classification: The peach belongs to the family Rosaceae. It is classified as Prunus persica.

Aloe

2009-01-17T22:17:00.005-08:00

Aloe, genus of plants with more than 150 species, most native to South Africa. They usually have short stems, fleshy, lanceolate leaves crowded in rosettes at the end of the stem, and red or yellow tubular flowers in dense clusters. Species vary in height from several centimeters to more than 9 m (30 ft); they are widely cultivated as garden and tub plants. Several species are commercially important as the source of the aloes used in medicine.

Scientific classification: Aloes belong to the family Liliaceae.

Agave

2009-01-17T22:17:00.003-08:00

Agave, genus of plants native to desert regions of the western hemisphere. The best-known species is the American aloe, or century plant, which usually flowers only once, between the ages of 10 and 25 years. Shortly before it flowers, a long stalk grows rapidly upward to a height of about 12 m (about 40 ft). The flowers are large and greenish and cover short, horizontal branches that spring from the upper half of the stalk. Some plants die after flowering, but rhizomes of suckers often develop into new plants. The plant may also be grown from seeds, bulbs, or underground stems. The agave has large, thick, and fleshy leaves, which can store considerable quantities of water. They are spiked, particularly at the tips, are evergreen, and grow to a length of about 2 m (about 6 ft) in a cluster around the base of the plant.

Many species of agave are of economic importance. Sisal, native to the West Indies but now also grown in Mexico and various tropical countries of Eurasia, yields sisal or sisal hemp. Fibers up to 1.5 m (5 ft) long are obtained from the leaves of this plant and are used to make rope. Other species of agave yield similar fibers that are called sisal or, more properly, false sisal. The roots of some species yield a pulp that produces a lather when wet and is used as soap. Such soap plants are called amoles. The sap of some agaves is fermented to obtain a drink called pulque, which can be distilled to make a colorless liquor, mescal. All agave is called maguey in Mexico. One species, the false aloe, is native to the southeastern United States.

Scientific classification: Agaves belong to the family Agavaceae. The American aloe, or century plant, is classified as Agave americana, sisal as Agave sisalana, and false aloe as Manfreda virginica.

Succulent

2009-01-17T22:17:00.001-08:00

Succulent, in botany, a tropical or desert plant with thick and fleshy stem or leaves designed to retain water and minimize evaporation. Succulent plants are usually found in regions of little rainfall and generally have long roots to absorb a maximum amount of water. Some of the commonest succulents are the cactus, which are leafless or have short, prickly leaves, storing a lot of sap in the stem; and the agave and aloe, which collect water in the stem.

Protoplasm

2009-01-17T22:16:00.010-08:00

Protoplasm, term once used to describe the ground substance—the living material—of cells. This material would include the complex colloidal organization of substances making up a cell's nucleus, cytoplasm, plastids, and mitochondria. The term protoplasm has to a great extent been replaced by the term cytoplasm; the latter, however, does not include the cell nucleus. Protoplasm is also used to describe the contents of the tubelike structures (hyphae) of which fungi are composed.

Ergot

2009-01-17T22:16:00.009-08:00

Ergot, name used interchangeably for a disease of rye, for the fungus causing the disease, for the sclerotium (compact hardened mycelium, or fruiting surface) of the fungus, and for the dried sclerotium, which contains certain valuable drugs.

Ergot fungi are molds that infect rye and other cereals and wild grasses. The filamentous mycelium of the mold spreads through the tissues of the flower and attacks the ovaries, which become deformed and enlarged and then wither. The deeper mycelium within the ovary becomes dense and hard, forming sclerotium.

The dried sclerotium as used in medicine contains the crystalline alkaloids ergotamine, C33H35N5O5, and ergotinine, C35H39N5O5, and the amorphous alkaloid ergotoxine, C35H39N5O5. Histamine is also present in minute quantities. In moderate doses ergotamine causes the contraction of unstriped muscle fibers, such as those in terminal arterioles. It is used to control hemorrhage and to promote contraction of the uterus during childbirth; it is used also to treat migraine headaches. In large doses the drug paralyzes the motor nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system. Ergotism, a disease of humans and animals, is caused by excessive intake of ergot: in humans, either by the overuse of the drug or by eating breadstuffs made with infected flour, and in cattle, by the eating of ergot-infected grain and grass. Acute and chronic ergotism are characterized by mental disorientation, muscle cramps, convulsions, and dry gangrene of the extremities. One of the psychoactive drugs, LSD is chemically related to the ergot alkaloids.

Scientific classification: Ergot fungi belong to the genus Claviceps, of the family Clavicipitaceae.

Mushroom

2009-01-17T22:16:00.007-08:00

Mushroom, technically confined to members of a family of fungi with gills, but in popular usage any of the larger fleshy or woody fungi. The application of the term mushroom to edible species only and the term toadstool to those considered poisonous or otherwise objectionable has no scientific basis. For example, two poisonous fungi may be less closely related than are a poisonous species and an edible one.

Of the thousands of species of mushrooms known throughout the world, the great majority are tough, woody, bitter, tasteless, or of such rare occurrence that they are of no interest as food. A few species produce death or serious illness when eaten. No simple rule exists for distinguishing edible and poisonous mushrooms, but the characteristics of the more common edible species can be readily learned, and collecting activities should be confined to such species. Morels, puffballs, and other species described below are not ordinarily confused with dangerous types; whenever doubt arises, the only safe procedure is to discard all suspicious mushrooms. Fresh commercially grown mushrooms can always be eaten with safety.

Heterosporous

2008-12-13T01:41:00.007-08:00

Spike Moss, common name for a medium-size family of primitive vascular plants. The plants are mainly of tropical distribution, growing in moist, shaded habitats. A few occur in deserts, where they become dormant during the driest parts of the year; the resurrection plant is an example of such a species. The plants of the spike moss genus are similar to those of a related genus (see Club Moss), but in the spike moss a small outgrowth, called a ligule, is located on the upper surface of each leaf close to where it joins the stem.

The spike moss is heterosporous. That is, it reproduces through the production of two kinds of spores, produced in sacs called sporangia, that are borne by specialized leaves called sporophylls. Small sacs, or microsporangia, produce many small microspores, which germinate to form short-lived, nongreen microgametophytes that produce sperm (male sexual cells). Larger sacs, or megasporangia, produce a few larger megaspores each, and these form nongreen megagametophytes that produce eggs in specialized organs called archegonia. To reach an archgonium and fertilize an egg, a sperm cell must swim in a film of water. Several species of spike moss are cultivated in tropical greenhouses for their interesting foliage.

Scientific classification: Spike mosses make up the family Selaginellaceae. The only genus in the family is Selaginella. The resurrection plant is classified as Selaginella lepidophylla.

Resurrection Plant

2008-12-13T01:41:00.005-08:00

Resurrection Plant, common name for a fernlike, perennial desert plant, of the family of spike mosses, that ranges from the southwestern United States down to El Salvador. The flowerless plant has small, scalelike leaves and grows to a height of 10 cm (4 in). It requires little water to survive, but when completely deprived of moisture it contracts into a ball and may be borne by the wind. When it settles near water, it unfolds and is renewed—hence the name. In their dried-up state, resurrection plants are sometimes sold as novelties. The plant is sometimes called the rose of Jericho, just as that plant is often called the resurrection plant.

Scientific classification: The resurrection plant belongs to the family Selaginellaceae. It is classified as Selaginella lepidophylla.

Rose of Jericho

2008-12-13T01:41:00.003-08:00

Rose of Jericho, also resurrection plant, common name for a small herb of the mustard family, native to Syria. It is seldom more than 15 cm (6 in) high and has small white flowers. After the herb has flowered, the leaves fall off and the branches become incurved toward the center, so that the plant assumes an almost globular form. In this state it is often blown about by the wind in the desert. When it happens to be blown into water the branches expand again, and the pods open and spill out the seeds.

Scientific classification: The rose of Jericho belongs to the family Brassicaceae (formerly Cruciferae). It is classified as Anastatica

Club Moss

2008-12-13T01:41:00.001-08:00

Club Moss, common name for a group of plants closely related to the ferns. Two important genera are low, sometimes creeping evergreen plants that are widely distributed throughout the United States and other temperate and tropical climates. Various tropical species grow on the trunks of trees or on the ground. Usually less than 30 cm (less than 12 in) tall, the plants resemble pine in that their leaves are needlelike. Their widespread use in Christmas wreaths has brought some species close to extinction. In reproduction, spores and asexual cells borne in an elongated cone are scattered on the ground and ripen underground into sexual reproductive organs from which new plants grow.

The common club moss, also called running pine and stag's horn moss, grows in open, dry woods and rocky places. Ground pine or ground cedar has branchlets that resemble the branches of juniper. Tree moss, fir club moss, or foxfeet grows on rocks and in bogs. Fossil species, many of gigantic size, have been found in strata of the Upper Silurian and the Devonian and Carboniferous periods.

Scientific classification: The two important genera of club mosses are Lycopodium, of the family Lycopodiaceae, and Selaginella, of the family Selaginellaceae. The common club moss is classified as Lycopodium clavatum, ground pine or ground cedar as Lycopodium complanatum, and tree moss as Lycopodium selago.

Homosporous

2008-12-13T01:40:00.010-08:00

Spores are usually produced by the division of cells within a structure called a sporangium. In bryophytes and most ferns, horsetails, club mosses, and whisk ferns, spores give rise to the same kind of plants as the parents, which are thus called homosporous. But in a few of those just mentioned and in all seed plants, some spores grow into sexual plants (gametophytes) that produce male gametes (sex cells), while others grow into sexual plants that produce female gametes; parent plants producing such spores are called heterosporous. Spores that give rise to male gametophytes are called microspores; spores giving rise to female gametophytes are known as megaspores. In seed plants, male gametophytes are known as pollen grains, and female gametophytes are called embryo sacs. Thick-walled resting zygotes (cells formed by the union of gametes) resemble spores and are called zygospores or oospores.

Shrub

2008-12-13T01:40:00.009-08:00

Shrub, short, woody plant, typically with several stems arising from or near the ground. Shrubs are perennial plants—that is, they live for at least three years. Although the distinction is often artificial, shrubs are generally shorter and have more stems than trees.

Shrubs grow wild in all but the coldest or driest regions of the earth. They may be evergreen (retaining foliage throughout the year) or deciduous (losing foliage each year). Shrubs are often planted to control erosion, the wearing away of topsoil by wind and rain, in exposed areas. Their variety of forms, foliage, flowers, fruits, and fragrance make them popular in gardens and as landscape plants. According to 20th century British botanist Stanley Whitehead, shrubs “have the stable, long-life qualities of forest trees without the embarrassment of the latter’s size. They match the floral beauty and grace of habit of herbaceous plants without their compelling need for support and attention.” Popular shrubs include the rhododendron, laurel, holly, dogwood, rose, and hydrangea.

Rhododendron

2008-12-13T01:40:00.007-08:00

Rhododendron, common name for flowering plants of a genus of the heath family. The genus contains some 850 species, the majority of which are cultivated. Native to the temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, rhododendrons are most abundant in the Himalayas, southeast Asia, and the mountains of Malaysia. Cultivated species can now be found on all continents. Rhododendrons exhibit great variety in size, habit, and flower color. They range from small, ground-hugging shrubs to small trees, and from white to pink, dark-purple, or yellow flowers. Most species are evergreen—that is, they retain their foliage throughout the year. The deciduous species of rhododendron, those that lose all of their foliage each year, are known in horticulture as azaleas.

Scientific classification: Rhododendrons make up the genus Rhododendron of the family Ericaceae.

Heath

2008-12-13T01:40:00.005-08:00

Heath, common name for a plant family comprising flowering plants that are widely distributed in both temperate and tropical regions of the world, and for its representative genus. The family contains about 3350 species, which are placed in more than 100 genera and include a large number of ornamentals. Important horticultural members of the family are rhododendrons and azaleas (see Rhododendron), heath, heather, madrona, mountain laurel, sweetbell, and sourwood. Various species produce such fruit as the blueberry, cranberry, and huckleberry. Briar pipes are made from burls of heath species native to the Mediterranean area.

Most members of the heath family are woody, often evergreen shrubs. Many are poisonous; indeed, many common cultivated species contain the toxin andromedotoxin, which causes vomiting and reduced blood pressure and may result in death if taken in large quantities. Azaleas, rhododendrons, sweetbells, and laurels all contain this compound.

The flowers are characterized by four or five sepals (outer floral whorls) and four or five petals (inner floral whorls) that are fused at the base to form a tube. The stamens (male floral organs) are usually twice as numerous as the petals, and the anthers (pollen-bearing structures) open by terminal pores rather than by longitudinal slits, as they do in most families of flowering plants. The ovary (female floral organ) is usually superior (borne above and free from the other floral parts).

Most members of the order to which the heath family belongs are woody plants, with small trees and shrubs predominating. Some tropical species are epiphytes (plants growing on other plants for support but not nourishment). A number of species, such as the Indian pipe, lack chlorophyll, the food-producing pigment that is found in most plants, and are parasitic, depending on other green plants for their nourishment.

Although the order is widely distributed, its members occur mainly in cooler areas. Thus, in tropical regions they are found mainly in mountainous areas. In addition, most members of the order occur in acid soils.

The seven other families of the order contain only a few species each and have limited economic importance as ornamentals. They are also used in local medicines.

Scientific classification: Heaths make up the family Ericaceae, of the order Ericales. The representative genus is Erica. The Indian pipe is classified as Monotropa uniflora in the family Pyrolaceae.

Blueberry

2008-12-13T01:40:00.003-08:00

Blueberry, common name applied to several related shrubs (see Heath) and to their blue or black fruit. The lowbush, or swamp, blueberry and the highbush blueberry are the two most common species raised in the United States. The lowbush blueberry averages less than 1 m (less than 3 ft) in height; the highbush blueberry ranges from 1.8 to 6 m (6 to 20 ft). Although blueberries are cultivated in many regions of the world, large quantities of the shrubs grow wild. Mostly deciduous, the bushes bear sweet blue or black berries, which grow either singly or in clusters. Branches of the evergreen, also known as huckleberry greens, are used in flower arrangements and in other decorations.

Scientific classification: Blueberries belong to the family Ericaceae. The lowbush, or swamp, blueberry is classified as Vaccinium angustifolium, and the highbush blueberry as Vaccinium corymbosum.

Cranberry

2008-12-13T01:40:00.001-08:00

Cranberry, common name for several species of low vines of a genus of the heath family, and for their small, sour, seedy fruit. The plants, which belong to the same genus as the blueberry, have drooping, pink flowers and small, thick, evergreen leaves. The small, or European, cranberry grows wild in marshlands of temperate and colder regions of Europe and North America. Most of the cranberry crop produced in the United States each year is canned as sauce or jelly or bottled as juice. The cowberry, or mountain cranberry, is common in both Europe and North America. It is gathered and sold in considerable quantity but is rarely cultivated. The highbush cranberry, with its clusters of white flowers followed by red berries, is a shrub of the honeysuckle family. Its fruit is sometimes used as a substitute for cranberries.

Scientific classification: Cranberries belong to the genus Vaccinium of the family Ericaceae. The small, or European, cranberry is classifed as Vaccinium oxycoccos; the large, or American, cranberry as Vaccinium macrocarpon; and the cowberry, or mountain cranberry, as Vaccinium vitis-idaea. The highbush cranberry belongs to the family Caprifoliaceae and is classified as Viburnum opulus.

Honeysuckle

2008-12-13T01:39:00.012-08:00

Honeysuckle, common name for a plant family and for its representative genus. The family contains about 400 species of dicot flowering plants, including many ornamentals. It occurs mainly in the North Temperate Zone, particularly in China, but it also extends into tropical mountains. Its members are mostly shrubs or small trees, although some familiar members are herbaceous—for example, elderberry and some species of honeysuckle, such as Japanese honeysuckle. The leaves are opposite one another on the branch and lack stipules (leafy appendages at the leaf base); the calyx and corolla (floral whorls) have fused parts and arise from above the ovary (female flower part); and usually five stamens are borne on the inside of the corolla tube. The fruit is usually a berry.

The family contains many ornamentals, such as the honeysuckle, a genus of about 180 species of usually fragrant shrubs and vines—including the trumpet honeysuckle—more than 30 of which are cultivated; the elders; the arrowwoods; the abelias; and the weigelias. Some species of elder produce wood that has been used to make musical instruments, and the fruits and flowers of the genus are sometimes used to make wines and preserves. Japanese honeysuckle, introduced from Asia, has become a weed in eastern North America. It often kills the native vegetation by overshadowing it.

Scientific classification: Honeysuckles make up the family Caprifoliaceae. The representative genus is Lonicera. The Japanese honeysuckle is classified as Lonicera japonica and the trumpet honeysuckle as Lonicera sempervirens.

Huckleberry

2008-12-13T01:39:00.011-08:00

Huckleberry, common name for any of a genus of shrubs (see Heath), native to temperate North America. The pale-purple or pale-red flowers, borne in racemes, have a five-part calyx, a five-cleft tubular or bell-shaped corolla, ten stamens, and a solitary pistil. The blue to black fruit contains ten bony, seedlike nutlets. Lower surfaces of huckleberry leaves are sprinkled with resinous dots.

Black huckleberry, native to woodlands and swamps of the northeastern United States and eastern Canada, is a shrub growing 30 to 91 cm (12 to 36 in) high, producing edible black fruits. Bear huckleberry, or buckberry, native to woodlands of the southeastern United States, is a slender shrub, less than 30 cm (12 in) high, producing unpalatable reddish-black fruits. Dangleberry, native to the eastern United States, is a low shrub producing dark-blue sweet fruits. Huckleberries are often cultivated in the United States for their foliage and fruit.

Scientific classification: Huckleberries constitute the genus Gaylussacia, of the family Ericaceae. The black huckleberry is classified as Gaylussacia baccata, the bear huckleberry as Gaylussacia ursina, and the dangleberry as Gaylussacia frondosa.

Laurel Plant

2008-12-13T01:39:00.009-08:00

Laurel (plant), common name for a flowering plant family, widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, and for its representative genus. The laurel family contains between 30 and 50 genera and at least 2000 species. Several well-known and important genera of the family also occur in temperate areas, for example, camphor, cinnamon, avocado, and spice-bush. The laurel, or bay, also called bay laurel and bayberry, is a large evergreen shrub native to the Mediterranean region; it has been important since classical times and is now widely cultivated in warm temperate areas as an ornamental and for its aromatic leaves, which are used in cooking. California bay yields a valuable wood.

The order to which the family belongs contains 8 families with about 2500 species distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. Many species exhibit botanically interesting structures, and some are of economic value because of the useful products derived from them.

Although a great diversity of form occurs in the order, several features are common to most of its members and distinguish the order from others. All members are woody trees, shrubs, or vines, and all produce aromatic oils in their tissues. The stamens (male floral structures) have appendages that produce nectar, and the pistil (female floral part) often consists of a single carpel (ovary receptacle).

The members of the order are believed to resemble the earliest flowering plants in their woody nature, floral characteristics, and details of anatomy and pollen structure. In addition, the order has a long fossil history, with specimens similar to plants of several living genera having been found in rocks more than 65 million years old. Members of the order to which laurels belong, however, are considered more advanced than another primitive group of woody flowering plants (see Magnolia), which have stamens and carpels that more closely resemble leaves.

Of the remaining 7 families in the order, one, the Monimia family, has about 450 species, and the rest have a total of fewer than 100, with 3 having only one species each. They are mostly of restricted distribution and little economic importance.

Unrelated plants also called laurel include the mountain laurel and several other members of its genus, along with several members of the cherry genus.

Scientific classification: Laurel is the common name for the family Lauraceae of the order Laurales. The laurel, or bay, is classified as Laurus nobilis and the California bay as Umbilicus californica.

Tansy

2008-12-13T01:39:00.007-08:00

Tansy, common name for a genus of about 70 north temperate species of flowering plants of the family of composite flowers. A few are native to the United States. The common tansy is an aromatic perennial herb growing to about 1 m (about 3 ft) high, with deeply divided leaves and yellow flowering heads. Native to Europe and now naturalized in North America, it is grown as a garden ornamental; it also has been used in cooking and to make a tonic.

Scientific classification: Tansies make up the genus Tanacetum of the family Asteraceae (formerly Compositae). The common tansy is classified as Tanacetum vulgare.

Composite Flowers

2008-12-13T01:39:00.005-08:00

Composite Flowers, common name for one of the largest families of flowering plants, with more than 20,000 species. The common name refers to the clustering of the flowers into compact heads so that an entire cluster resembles a single flower, as in the familiar aster or dandelion.

The composite family is worldwide in distribution except for Antarctica, where two species of grasses are the only flowering plants known. Composites are particularly well adapted to semiarid parts of tropical and subtropical regions, to arctic and alpine tundra, and to temperate regions. They are poorly represented only in tropical rain forests.

Although the composite family contains nearly 10 percent of all the flowering plants, its direct economic importance is relatively small. Lettuce is the most important crop; other notable food plants are artichoke, endive, salsify, chicory, and tarragon. Sunflower and safflower are important sources of vegetable oils, and some members such as guayule have been studied as potential sources of rubber. Weedy members of the family include dandelion, thistle, cocklebur, and ragweed, which is a major source of the airborne pollen that affects hay fever sufferers. Horticulturally important members of the composite family include marigold, dahlia, zinnia, daisy, cosmos, chrysanthemum, tansy, and aster.

Cinnamon

2008-12-13T01:39:00.003-08:00

Cinnamon, common name for several related trees of the laurel family, and for a spice made from the dried bark of the trees. The best-known species is native to Sri Lanka; it is cultivated in many other tropical countries in Southeast Asia and elsewhere, but that grown in Sri Lanka is superior in taste. The tree, which usually grows up to 12 m (40 ft) high, is cultivated to grow four to five stems. When the bark begins to turn brown, the stems, which may be about 2.5 m (about 8 ft) tall and 5 cm (2 in) in diameter at the base, are harvested and new ones are trained to grow in their place. After the tree is stripped of leaves and twigs, the inner and outer bark is removed. As the bark dries, it forms rolls (quills), the smaller of which are inserted into the larger, and when fully dry, these are tied in bundles for shipment.

Cinnamon is yellowish brown and has a distinctive fragrant aroma and a sweetish, pungent taste. It has been used since early times as a spice in many culinary preparations, and it is also used in some medicines. The aromatic qualities of cinnamon result from a volatile oil, oil of cinnamon, that may be extracted from the bark by distillation. The oil varies in color from yellow to cherry red; the yellow is used in scenting soap and flavoring candy.

Scientific classification: Cinnamon trees belong to the family Lauraceae. The best-known species is Cinnamomum zeylanicum.

Avocado

2008-12-13T01:39:00.001-08:00

Avocado, also alligator pear, common name for a tree (see Laurel), native to tropical America, and for the fruit of this tree. The fruit is a greenish, thick-skinned drupe, similar in size and shape to a large pear. When ripe, the flesh has the consistency of firm butter and a faint nutlike flavor. It has a high fat content, containing 10 to 20 percent oil, and is rich in protein. In the United States avocado is popular as a salad vegetable, and in the tropics it is often used in soup. The tree is extensively cultivated in the southern United States and California.

Scientific classification: The avocado tree belongs to the family Lauraceae. It is classified as Persea americana.

Holly

2008-12-13T01:38:00.004-08:00

Holly, common name for a family of plants, containing about 300 species, and for its typical genus. The holly family consists of trees and shrubs usually having separate staminate and separate pistillate flowers that are small in size, four- to eight-parted in structure, and white or greenish in color. The fruit are usually red drupes, containing two to eight one-seeded stones. English holly is a small tree with spiny evergreen leaves and bright-red fruit. The common American holly has duller, less spiny leaves. It is native to the eastern United States, where it has been harvested so extensively that several states enforce protective laws. Both species of holly are widely cultivated for ornamental purposes. A South American species, the Paraguay tea, has stimulant properties and is used to make an aromatic beverage, maté.

Scientific classification: Hollies make up the family Aquifoliaceae. English holly is classified as Ilex aquifolium, the common American holly as Ilex opaca, and the Paraguay tea as Ilex paraguariensis.

Maté

2008-12-13T01:38:00.003-08:00

Maté, also yerba maté, a tealike beverage used extensively in South America, especially in Brazil. It is made from the dried and roughly ground leaves and shoots of certain species of holly, especially Ilex paraguariensis. Its stimulating effect is derived from its content of theine (see Caffeine). Maté is also known as Paraguay tea.

Dogwood

2008-12-13T01:38:00.001-08:00

Dogwood, common name for a family of flowering plants distributed mainly in the temperate areas of the northern hemisphere, with a few species occurring in tropical South America and Africa. Of the 14 genera in the family, only the dogwood genus is native to North America. Members of the family are mostly trees or shrubs with simple, opposite leaves. Well-known exceptions, however, are the bunch berry, a perennial herb; and the pagoda dogwood, which has alternate leaves. Dogwood flowers are small and are produced in branched terminal clusters that are sometimes surrounded by showy white bracts. Thus, the so-called petals of the familiar flowering dogwood are actually bracts.

The main economic importance of dogwoods stem from their valuable ornamental species, grown for their attractive flowers, flower bracts, fruits, twigs and stems, and colorful autumn leaves. In addition to the species already mentioned, most of which are commercially grown, others commonly found in cultivation include the Cornelian cherry, the red-osier dogwood, the Japanese dogwood, and certain sour gums. The fruit of the Cornelian cherry, a native of Europe, is used in France to make an alcoholic beverage, vin de courneille, and is also used in preserves. Oil extracted from the fruit of the blood-twig dogwood is used in France for making soap. The wood of several species is used in furniture.

The order to which the dogwoods belong contains 4 families and about 150 species, about 100 of which are in the same family as dogwoods. The sour gum family contains three genera. The two other families both contain one genus. Members of the order vary greatly in flower structure, making the order difficult to characterize. The flowers are usually small, however, with the four or five sepals commonly reduced in size and forming a tube that is fused to the ovary (female flower part). A nectar-producing disk is usually present on the upper part of the ovary. Four or five petals are commonly found; they are not fused to one another. Occasionally, however, the petals are absent.

Scientific classification: Dogwoods make up the family Cornaceae, in the order Cornales. The bunch berry is classified as Cornus canadensis, the pagoda dogwood as Cornus alternifolia, the flowering dogwood as Cornus florida, the Pacific dogwood as Cornus nuttalli, the Cornelian cherry as Cornus mas, the red-osier dogwood as Cornus stolonifera, the Japanese dogwood as Cornus kousa, and the blood-twig dogwood as Cornus sanguinea. The sour gums commonly found in cultivation are classified in the genus Nyssa, in the family Nyssaceae. The two other families in the order Cornales are Alangiaceae and Garryaceae.

Hydrangea

2008-12-13T01:37:00.001-08:00

Hydrangea, common name for certain deciduous and evergreen shrubs and woody vines. Hydrangeas are native to Asia and the Americas. The flowers are borne in clusters, the outermost flowers of which consist of a colored, membranous envelope, but the inner flowers of which have an eight- to ten-ribbed, tubular envelope, four or five ovate petals, eight to ten slender stamens, and a two-celled pistil. The fruit is a many-seeded capsule. The wild hydrangea of the eastern United States is an erect shrub that grows up to 3 m (up to 10 ft) high and bears white flowers in round clusters. The showier hydrangeas are cultivated Asian species, such as a typical cultivar of the hortensia, which grows up to 3.6 m (up to 12 ft) high; has broad, thick, shining leaves; and produces white, blue, or pink, flowers in round or flat clusters. The mock orange, a separate genus of the same family, also produces showy white flowers.

Scientific classification: The genus Hydrangea belongs to the family Saxifragaceae. The wild hydrangea is classified as Hydrangea arborescens and the typical cultivar of the hortensia as Hydrangea macrophylla cultivar hortensia.

Fennel

2008-12-13T01:02:00.000-08:00

Fennel, common name for a perennial plant (see Parsley), characterized chiefly by its aromatic leaves and seeds. Fennel grows from about 61 to 122 cm (about 24 to 48 in) in height and has small yellow flowers. The common fennel is cultivated in both Europe and America. Its leaves and seeds are used for flavoring. Another variety, called variously Florence fennel, sweet fennel, Italian fennel, or Cretan fennel, is cultivated in southern Europe. The bases of the leafstalks of Florence fennel are greatly enlarged and form a bulbous structure, which is bleached by earthing and then eaten raw or cooked. The seed of Florence fennel is used widely in Italy as an aromatic condiment and as a medicine.

Scientific classification: Fennel belongs to the family Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae). It is classified as Foeniculum vulgare. The common fennel is classified as Foeniculum vulgare variety azoricum, and the Florence fennel as Foeniculum vulgare variety dulce.

Gametophytes

2008-12-12T03:12:00.000-08:00

Spore, term applied to a specially modified asexual reproductive cell produced by many fungi and plants and by some protozoans. The spore is resistant to heat, drought, and other adverse conditions, remaining in a resting state until the environment is favorable for development or germination. Many bacteria (see Prokaryote) concentrate their cytoplasm and encapsulate under unfavorable conditions; these resting stages are generally called spores, but they are not reproductive cells and are therefore not comparable to the spores of other organisms.

Spores are usually produced by the division of cells within a structure called a sporangium. In bryophytes and most ferns, horsetails, club mosses, and whisk ferns, spores give rise to the same kind of plants as the parents, which are thus called homosporous. But in a few of those just mentioned and in all seed plants, some spores grow into sexual plants (gametophytes) that produce male gametes (sex cells), while others grow into sexual plants that produce female gametes; parent plants producing such spores are called heterosporous. Spores that give rise to male gametophytes are called microspores; spores giving rise to female gametophytes are known as megaspores. In seed plants, male gametophytes are known as pollen grains, and female gametophytes are called embryo sacs. Thick-walled resting zygotes (cells formed by the union of gametes) resemble spores and are called zygospores or oospores.

Brown Algae

2008-12-09T18:50:00.000-08:00

Brown Algae, about 1500 species of almost exclusively marine, brown-colored algae, known as seaweeds, that make up the brown algae phylum in the protist kingdom. They are found mainly in the tidal zones of temperate to polar seas, but some exist in the deep ocean. Brown algae are the largest of the algae; well-known forms include the giant kelp and the free-floating sargassum weed. Their brown color is derived from the presence of the pigment fucoxanthin, which along with other xanthophyll pigments, masks the green color of the chlorophyll in the algal cells.

The brown algae are multicellular and have differentiated structures that, in some species, bear a superficial resemblance to the roots, stalks, and leaves of true plants. These structures, however, are quite different internally. The cell walls of the algae are made of a cellulose similar to that found in red algae; the outsides of the walls are covered by a gelatinous pectic compound called algin. The plants undergo an alternation of generations; the diploid phase (two sets of genes in a cell) is microscopic and brief, and the haploid phase (one set of genes in a cell) is macroscopic and comparatively long-lived. Brown algae such as kelp are harvested for use as an emulsion stabilizer, an ingredient of ice cream; as a fertilizer; as a vitamin-containing food source; and for iodine.

Scientific classification: Brown algae make up the phylum Phaeophyta in the kingdom Protista. Kelp are classified in the order Laminariales. Sargassum weed is classified in the genus Sargassum.

Desmid

2008-12-09T01:06:00.000-08:00

Desmid, common name for numerous single-celled freshwater green algae. The cell is divided into two symmetrical halves, held together by an isthmus containing the nucleus. Each half of the cell contains a single chloroplast. Desmids sometimes grow in colonies, where individuals remain attached after cell division. Many species are capable of self-locomotion by gliding. They are phototropic; the direction of their movement is determined by their response to light.

Desmids reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexually, the desmids reproduce by a simple division across the isthmus; the one cell becomes two. In sexual reproduction, the desmids come together in pairs and their cell contents fuse. From this fused body come two new desmids. Although this form of sexual reproduction does not increase the population, it does maintain genetic variation within the population.

Desmids of one common genus are crescent shaped and have a small vacuole at each end of the cell. These vacuoles contain minute crystals of gypsum, which are in constant Brownian motion.

Scientific classification: Desmids make up the family Desmidiaceae. Crescent-shaped desmids with vacuoles containing gypsum crystals make up the genus Closterium.

Stonewort

2008-11-14T19:14:00.008-08:00

Stonewort, common name for about 200 species of algae belonging to the phylum Charophyta of the plant kingdom. Stoneworts are so called because the plant surface is usually covered by a thick, brittle, limy crust of calcium carbonate. They are closely related to green algae and have sometimes been regarded as a class (Charophyceae) within that phylum.

Stoneworts grow submerged in hard (alkaline) water and often form dense mats on the bottom of ponds and brackish waters. They are much larger than typical green algae and superficially resemble higher plants in their rootlike rhizoids, leaflike branches at regular intervals, and upright cylindrical axes surrounded by a sheath of cells. Asexual reproduction usually involves the shedding of reproductive branches. Sexual reproduction is by the formation, at leaf nodes, of a large egg in a female sexual structure called an oogonium, and of sperm in filaments constituting the male sexual organ, or antheridium.

Deciduous Plants

2008-11-14T19:14:00.007-08:00

Deciduous Plants, plants that shed their leaves annually at the approach of a season of cold or drought. The term is also applied to plants that drop leaves, fruits, or flowers at maturity, in contrast to those that retain their foliage or flowers. Plants that keep their foliage throughout the year are called evergreens.

Evergreen

2008-11-14T19:14:00.005-08:00

Evergreen, name applied to any plant that retains its foliage through two or more consecutive seasons. In contrast to deciduous plants, which shed their leaves seasonally, evergreens retain their foliage anywhere from 1 to 18 years. Many common varieties, such as spruce, fir, and other members of the pine family, have needle-shaped foliage, but most evergreens are broad-leaved. Some shrubs and trees are both deciduous and evergreen, depending on where they are grown. Many species are valuable for their timber, while mistletoe and other evergreen foliage is popular as Christmas decoration.

Grasses

2008-11-14T19:14:00.003-08:00

Grasses, common name for a large family of flowering plants that is economically and ecologically the most important in the world. The grass family contains about 635 genera and 9000 species, making it the fourth largest family after the legume, orchid, and composite families (see Composite Flowers).

IMPORTANCE

All the world’s cereal crops are grasses, and thus the grass family is economically very important. The world’s 5 top crops produce more tonnage than the next 25 combined, and 4 of the top 5 are the cereals rice, wheat, corn, and barley. Human well-being depends on these few grasses, so even small crop failures of any one of them can produce widespread hunger and economic disruption. In addition, the family provides most of the world’s sugar (see Sugarcane). Another member of the family, bamboo, is an important construction material as well as a food source; it also has been used in papermaking. Citronella, used both in perfumery and as an insect repellent, is an oil distilled from the leaves of certain grasses.

Grasses are the primary source of food for domestic and wild grazing animals, which feed on pastures and grasslands and which are fed hay and silage harvested from them. The total land area devoted to these kinds of croplands is greater than the land area for all other kinds of croplands combined.

Another economically significant use of grasses is for the lawns maintained in many parts of the world. Perennial grasses are well adapted for use in lawns because their basal meristems (growing points) are not lost with mowing. Bermuda grass and zoysia are better adapted to the warm conditions of the southern states. Often special grasses are used where particular conditions of soil or exposure make the more common species unsuitable.

OTHER GRASSLIKE PLANTS

Plants of two other groups, the sedges and the rushes, are superficially similar to grasses and are often confused with them. The three groups are easily distinguished, however, by examining their flowers, stems, and leaves. Rushes have flowers with six-part perianths (floral whorls) and from three- to many-seeded fruits, whereas the flowers of sedges and grasses have no perianth and have single-seeded fruits. Sedges usually occur in moist habitats and have solid stems that are triangular and bear three rows of leaves. Grasses usually occur in dry habitats and have round, hollow stems with two rows of leaves.

Scientific classification: Grasses make up the family Poaceae (formerly Gramineae). Citronella is distilled from grasses of the genus Cymbopogon. Kentucky bluegrass is classified as Poa pratensis. Bent grasses are classified in the genus Agrostis. Fescue grasses are classified in the genus Festuca. Bermuda grass is classified as Cynodon dactylon. Zoysia grasses are classified in the genus Zoysia. Buffalo grass is classified as Buchloë dactyloïdes, carpet grass as Axonopus affinis, redtop as Agrostis gigantea, and annual bluegrass as Poa annua.

Halophyte

2008-11-14T19:14:00.001-08:00

Halophyte, term for salt-resistant plants, coined by the U.S. geologist Oscar E. Meinzer (1876-1948). Found in salt marshes and mangrove swamps, many halophytes could thrive in well-watered lands except for their inability to compete with the other plants found there. Generally fleshy and with gray-green foliage, many halophytes deal with the salt in their environment by eliminating it through special salt-secreting glands in their leaves. Others store the salt in leaves and stems that are shed at the end of the growing season, while the remaining halophytes keep salt from entering their cells by means of semipermeable membranes in their roots. One typical genus is that of the saltbush, Atriplex.

Spices

2008-11-14T19:12:00.008-08:00

Spices, aromatic flavorings made from parts of plants. The term spice is usually applied to pungent plant products, especially plants native to tropical Asia and the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, of Indonesia. It frequently also includes herbs, which are the fragrant leaves of herbaceous plants, many of which are native to temperate regions. With few exceptions, the spices and herbs known today were being used early in human history. Spice trade with the Orient was flourishing well before the advent of Christianity. The discovery of many spices probably predates the earliest civilizations, when primitive humans were attracted to the aromatic effects produced by what are now called essential oils, which are found in various plant parts. Interestingly, many of the same oils that attracted humans evolved in nature as toxins or repellents against animals; the leaves of the mint plant and the bark of the cinnamon tree, for example, evolved as protection against grass-eating ungulates and bark-boring insects.

Besides their long use in preserving foods and enhancing food flavor, spices and herbs played important, sometimes magical, roles in medicine. Before the advent of industrially prepared medicines, herbal remedies were commonly prescribed and were often effective, as some practitioners are now rediscovering.

Types of Spices and Herbs

2008-11-14T19:12:00.007-08:00

The great variety of herb and spice flavors are produced from nearly all parts of plants, from the leaves to the roots. Among those producing fragrant leaves are basil, rosemary, sage, savory, tarragon, and thyme, all of which are small annual or perennial plants. Bayleaf, or sweet laurel, used to flavor meats, sauces, and vinegars, comes from a shrub or tree.

Among the many spices derived from the ripe fruit or seeds of plants are aniseed (see Anise), caraway seed, chili peppers, coriander seed, dillseed (see Dill), fennel seed, juniper berry, mustard seed, nutmeg, pepper, poppy seed, and sesame seed. Licorice-flavored aniseed, which comes from Pimpinella anisum, a member of the carrot family, is used whole for baking and as an essential oil in candies and the liquors absinthe and anisette. Juniper berry, used to flavor gin, comes from the low evergreen shrub Juniperus communis. The strongest mustard seed comes from black mustard, Brassica nigra, which was probably the large plant mentioned in the Bible and which now grows in Israel to a height of 3.7 m (12 ft). Mustard seed releases its pungent flavor when its powder is moistened. The flavor is preserved by lemon juice, vinegar, or wine in prepared mustard. Nutmeg is the seed of an apricotlike fruit of the tropical evergreen tree Myristica fragrans. The red sheath around the seed is made into mace, another spice used to flavor pickles, ketchups, and sauces. Sesame seeds were ground into flour by the Egyptians and used by the Chinese 5000 years ago. The pearly, nut-flavored seeds, used especially in Middle Eastern cooking, come from the annual Sesasmun indicum and are scattered by the drying pod, making hand harvesting necessary.

Among the spices derived from roots are garlic and ginger. Garlic, Allium sativum, which is a bulb made up of many cloves and closely related to the onion, originated in Central Asia and is one of the oldest spices. Ginger comes from the fleshy, aromatic, bulblike rhizomes of the perennial Zingiber officinale. The rhizomes are sold commercially as gingerroot or dried and ground into ginger powder. The essential oil is used to make ginger-flavored beverages, sauces, and chutneys.

Culinary herbs are such as basil, bergamot, borage, caraway, chamomile, chervil, cicely, cinnamon, coriander, cress, cumin, dill, fennel, lemon balm, marjoram, mint, mustard, parsley, rosemary, sage, spearmint, summer savory, sweet woodruff, tarragon, thyme, and wild bergamot.

learn more: Herbs; Spices.

Basil

2008-11-14T19:12:00.003-08:00

Basil, common name for any of a genus of plants of the mint family. Basil is a sweet herb used for fragrance and as a seasoning for food. Sweet basil is an annual plant, a native of warm climates, about 30 cm (about 12 in) high, with ovate stalked leaves, and has long been cultivated in Europe. Bush basil is a small cultivated form. Basil, or mountain mint, is also a common name for plants of a separate, North American genus of the mint family.

Scientific classification: Basil belongs to the family Lamiaceae (formerly Labiatae). Sweet basil is classified as Ocimum basilicum and bush basil as Ocimum minimum. Mountain mints are classified in the genus Pycnanthemum.

Wild Bergamot

2008-11-14T19:12:00.001-08:00

Wild Bergamot, a culinary herb, member of the mint family, named for the Italian bergamot orange, which has a similar scent. It is also called bee balm, because it attracts bees, and Oswego tea, because Native Americans of the Oswego tribe used it to make a medicinal tea. It was introduced into cultivation by American botanist John Bertram in 1744, who found it growing on the shores of Lake Ontario in the United States. It was widely used for brewing tea during the boycott of British tea that followed the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Wild bergamot is native to eastern North America from New York to Michigan and south to Georgia and Tennessee. It survives winter temperatures as low as -34° C (-30° F). It is best adapted to moist soils in full sun to partial shade.

Wild bergamot is a herbaceous perennial, a plant with soft, green stems that lives for more than two growing seasons. The aboveground portions die each year after the first freeze, but the plant regrows from the roots each spring. The stems of wild bergamot form clumps and grow to a height of about 60 to 120 cm (about 2 to 4 ft). The stems are four-sided and may have some hairs when young but become hairless with age. The leaves are about 10 cm (about 4 in) long and may be either heart shaped or pointed at the tip and rounded at the base. They can be smooth or slightly hairy and have toothed edges and a strong mint scent. They are attached in pairs to leaf stems that are about 0.7 cm (about 0.3 in) long.

Wild bergamot blooms from midsummer to fall with flowers that are usually red, but may be pink, mauve, or white. The flowers are arranged in broad, flat-topped clusters at the end of stems. Each flower has a long tube, divided at the end into two flaring lips. The lower lip is divided into three segments and the tube is hairy on the inside. Wild bergamot has underground stems, called rhizomes, from which new plants grow, enabling it to spread aggressively. It can become a problem weed in a garden unless the spread of the roots is blocked by an underground barrier.

Wild bergamot is commonly grown as a garden plant. The dried leaves can be brewed to make a tea with sedative effects that is said to relieve nausea. The herb adds a sweet flavor and fragrance to desserts, jellies, and soft cheeses. The leaves are used to scent candles, perfumes, and potpourri.

Scientific classification: Wild bergamot is a member of the family Lamiaceae (formerly Labiatae). It is classified as Monarda didyma.

Borage

2008-11-14T19:11:00.008-08:00

Borage, common name for a large, widely distributed family of flowering plants (see Mint), and for its representative genus. The family contains about 154 genera and 2500 species, found throughout the temperate and subtropical regions of the world but centered in the Mediterranean area. Plants vary widely in habit from annuals to perennials and from herbs to shrubs to trees. They usually have rough hairs on the stems and leaves. The inflorescence (flower cluster) is characteristic of the family. It is spirally coiled and unrolls and straightens from the base as the flowers open. The insect-pollinated flowers are regular (radially symmetrical) with five-lobed corollas (fused petals) that are funnel-shaped or bell-shaped. The ovary is deeply lobed and matures into a fruit consisting of four nutlets. In addition to horticultural subjects, the family provides timber, dyes, and medicinal plants. One species of borage, native to Europe and North Africa, has been used as a culinary herb since the Middle Ages. It is a grayish-green, hairy annual about 60 cm (about 24 in) high, now mostly grown for its attractive little blue, white-centered flowers. Virginia bluebell, heliotrope, and forget-me-not are also members of this family.

Scientific classification: Borage is the common name for the family Boraginaceae. The species used as a culinary herb is classified as Borago officinalis.

Caraway

2008-11-14T19:11:00.007-08:00

Caraway, common name for a plant that has long been cultivated in temperate zones for its aromatic fruit, called caraway seeds. These seeds are used in cookery, confectionery, and medicine. The caraway plant is a biennial herb; it grows up to 61 cm (up to 2 ft) high and has finely divided leaves and clusters of white flowers. The large oil glands of the seed contain caraway oil, which is used to flavor the liqueur aquavit. This oil is also used in perfumery and in pharmacy as an aromatic stimulant and as a flavoring agent.

Scientific classification: The caraway plant belongs to the family Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae). It is classified as Carum carvi.

Wild Chamomile

2008-11-14T19:11:00.005-08:00

Wild Chamomile, a culinary herb with daisylike flowers that are dried and brewed as a soothing tea reputed to aid indigestion, calm muscle spasms, and relieve the pain and swelling of arthritis. A member of the composite flower family, it is also called sweet false chamomile and German chamomile, to distinguish it from the closely related true or Roman chamomile. Wild chamomile is native to the temperate regions of Europe and western Asia. It has become naturalized in North America, where it grows wild. It grows best in poor, sandy soil in full sun.

Wild chamomile is an annual, a plant that lives only one growing season. It reaches about 60 to 75 cm (about 2 to 2.5 ft) in height and has an upright, branching main stem. The bright green leaves, about 5.5 cm (about 2.2 in) long, are strongly apple-scented and finely divided, resembling fern leaves. The flowerhead is about 2.5 cm (about 1 in) in diameter. The yellow center of the flowerhead, which consists of disk flowers, is hollow and shaped like a cone. White petal-like ray flowers surround the center and curve slightly downward. Wild chamomile blooms all summer.

In addition to its medicinal use, wild chamomile is used as a fungicide for controlling a fungal disease that causes young seedlings to rot at the surface of the soil. It is also grown as a garden plant for its scented, attractive leaves and flowers. It has also been called “physician’s plant,” because it is reputed to restore vigor to ailing plants if it is planted beside them. However, because it produces abundant seeds, it can become a troublesome weed if the flowerheads are not removed after they bloom. The flowers are an ingredient in herbal shampoos and can be used to make a yellow dye.

Scientific classification: Wild chamomile belongs to the Asteroideae subfamily of the family Asteraceae (formerly Compositae). The most widely recognized scientific name for wild chamomile is Matricaria recutita, although some sources refer to it as Matricaria chamomilla and others as Chamomilla recutita.

Chervil

2008-11-14T19:11:00.003-08:00

Chervil, common name for an aromatic annual herb of the parsley family. The species, native to Europe, reaches a height of about 61 cm (about 24 in) and bears small, deeply cut leaves. The plant is cultivated for the leaves, which are used as a potherb, seasoning, and garnish in the same way as parsley.

Scientific classification: Chervil belongs to the family Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae). It is classified as Anthriscus cerefolium.

Cicely

2008-11-14T19:11:00.001-08:00

Cicely, also myrrh, anise fern, and sweet chervil, common name for an herb with leaves that smell strongly of anise or licorice, member of the carrot family. The name cicely is also used for a related genus of herbaceous perennials (plants that live at least three years and have nonwoody stems) with fleshy roots, tiny white or yellow flowers, and cylindrical fruit. Both the herb and the genus are also called sweet cicely.

A native of Europe, cicely reaches about 1 m (about 3 ft) in height and has pale green, anise-scented, fernlike leaves that consist of three lance-shaped leaflets. The small, whitish flowers form umbrella-shaped clusters in early spring and late summer. The shiny, ribbed fruit is about 2.5 cm (about 1 in) long and grows in upright clusters.

The cicely herb grows best in moist, shady sites and survives winter temperatures as low as -40° C (-40° F). It does not grow well in tropical or subtropical regions. The leaves, stems, and seed pods can be used to add an anise flavor to salads, teas, soups, and pies, or to sweeten sour fruit, such as rhubarb. In the Middle Ages, sweet cicely was used to stimulate the appetite and treat cold symptoms. The boiled roots were eaten as a protection against the plague.

Among the most common species of the cicely genus is woolly sweet cicely, also called sweet javril and sweet jarvil. It is about 1 m (about 3 ft) tall and has hairy leaves and stems. The fernlike leaves are up to 30 cm (12 in) wide and are divided into irregular sections with deeply toothed edges. The oblong fruit is about 2.5 cm (about 1 in) long and the roots smell of anise. Woolly sweet cicely is native to North America. It is found from Nova Scotia south to Alabama and as far west as Nebraska and Missouri. Smooth sweet cicely, also called anise root, is similar to woolly sweet cicely, but is sometimes hairless. Its leaves are less coarsely divided and irregular, and the fruit is smaller. It is native to North America from Quebec south to Georgia and as far west as Texas.

Scientific classification: Cicely belongs to thefamily Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae). The cicely herb is classified as Myrrhis odorata. The cicely genus is Osmorhiza. Woolly sweet cicely is classified as Osmorhiza claytonii, smooth sweet cicely as Osmorhiza longistylis.

Coriander

2008-11-14T19:10:00.009-08:00

Coriander, common name for an annual herb of the parsley family that grows to a height of about 30 to 90 cm (about 12 to 36 in). The lower leaves are divided into fine, threadlike partitions; the white and pink flowers grow in small, loose clusters. Native to Europe and Asia Minor, coriander has become naturalized in the United States. It is cultivated for its fruit, the dried seeds of which, also called coriander, are used as a spice in a wide variety of foods, and for its pungent leaves, called cilantro, a basic ingredient in Latin American and Asian cooking. Oil that is extracted from the seed is used in the preparation of liqueurs and is a medicine for abdominal discomfort.

Cress

2008-11-14T19:10:00.007-08:00

Cress, common name for a number of herbs, most of which are used as garnishings or in salads for their pungent flavor and high vitamin C content. One of the most common cresses is watercress, a perennial that grows in brooks and springs or in wet ground. Garden cress, also called peppergrass, is an Asian annual sometimes cultivated in the United States. A similar native species is wild peppergrass, a common weed. The various species known as bitter cress include the cuckooflower, found in bogs and other wet areas in the northern United States. Indian cress is known as nasturtium, although it is not related to the garden nasturtium.

Scientific classification: Cresses belong to the family Brassicaceae (formerly Cruciferae). Watercress is classified as Nasturtium officinale, garden cress as Lepidium sativum, wild peppergrass as Lepidium virginicum, and the cuckooflower as Cardamine pratensis.

Dill

2008-11-14T19:10:00.005-08:00

Dill, common name for an annual or biennial herb of the parsley family. It grows wild in grainfields of southern Europe, the British Isles, and the United States and is also cultivated as an herb. Dill has a strong, aromatic taste; its leaves are used for flavoring pickles and sauces.

Scientific classification: Dill belongs to the family Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae). It is classified as Anethum graveolens.

Lemon Balm

2008-11-14T19:10:00.003-08:00

Lemon Balm, also bee herb or sweet balm, a culinary and medicinal herb, member of the mint family. Lemon balm is native to southern Europe and northern Africa, and east as far as the Caucasus and northern Iran. The lemon-scented leaves add flavor to jellies, liqueurs, fruit salads, and cold drinks. The dried leaves make a tea that reportedly soothes cold symptoms, fevers, and headaches. The strongly scented leaves are also used in perfumes and natural cosmetics, and their juice takes the sting out of insect bites. Fruit growers sometimes plant lemon balm in orchards to attract bees to pollinate their crops. It grows best in infertile, moist soils in slightly shady areas, but will tolerate drought, full sun, and moderate shade. Plants can survive winter temperatures as low as -34°C (-30°F), but grow poorly in semitropical and tropical regions.

Lemon balm is a perennial herb—that is, one that lives at least three years. It is bushy and upright, reaching a height of about 1 m (about 3 ft). The soft, hairy leaves are 2 to 8 cm (0.8 to 3.0 in) long and either heart-shaped or rounded at the base and pointed at the tip. The leaf surface is coarse and deeply veined, and the leaf edge is scalloped or toothed. The leaves grow on the stem in pairs, opposite each other. Clusters of 4 to 12 small, white or pale pink flowers blossom in the summer. Like other plants in the mint family, lemon balm flowers consist of a long tube divided at the end into two flaring lips. Because lemon balm reseeds freely, it can become weedy in a garden.

Scientific classification: Lemon balm belongs to the family Lamiaceae (formerly Labiatae). It is classified as Melissa officinalis.

Marjoram

2008-11-14T19:10:00.001-08:00

Marjoram, common name for any of a genus of perennial herbs of the mint family. The herbs, native to Eurasia, are cultivated in the United States for the highly aromatic young leaves, which are used either fresh or dried as a seasoning. The flowers, which are borne in spikes, have a five-toothed calyx (outer floral envelope) and a two-lipped corolla (inner floral envelope). Either two or four stamens (male flower part) and a solitary pistil (female flower part) are present. The fruit is an achene (dry and one-seeded). The wild marjoram, more commonly called oregano, is a perennial; sweet marjoram is an annual, or frost-free, perennial.

Scientific classification: Marjorams belong to the family Lamiaceae (formerly Labiatae). Wild marjoram is classified as Origanum vulgare. Sweet marjoram is classified as Origanum majorana.

Mint

2008-11-14T19:09:00.003-08:00

Mint (plant), common name for a family of woody or herbaceous flowering plants of worldwide distribution, and for its well-known genus. Members of the mint family often contain aromatic oils, and many (often of Mediterranean origin) are cultivated as culinary herbs. These include marjoram and oregano, thyme, sage, rosemary, savory, and basil. The mint genus itself contains many well-known cultivated species: peppermint, spearmint, and pennyroyal. These and other members of the family, such as lavender and shellflower, are grown as ornamentals.

The family belongs to an order comprising more than 10,000 species, which, although placed in 4 families, are contained primarily in the 3 largest: the mint family, with 5,600 species; the verbena family, with 1,900 species; and the borage family, with 2,500 species. The lennoa family contains only 6 species—fleshy root parasites that lack chlorophyll. The order characteristically has opposite, decussate leaves (pairs of leaves at right angles to one another), and the stems are often squarish in cross section. The sepals (outer floral whorls) and petals (inner floral whorls) are fused into tubes that usually have four or five lobes, or lips, and are irregular (bilaterally symmetrical). The two, four, or five stamens (male flower parts) are attached to the inside of the corolla tube, which is made up of the fused petals. The ovary (female flower part) is superior—that is, borne above and free from the other flower parts—and has two carpels (ovule-bearing flower parts).

Scientific classification: Mints make up the family Lamiaceae (formerly Labiatae) of the order Lamiales. The well-known mint genus is Mentha. Peppermint is classified as Mentha piperita, spearmint as Mentha spicata, and pennyroyal as Mentha pulegium. Lavender is classified in the genus Lavendula and shellflower in the genus Molucella.

Mustard

2008-11-14T19:09:00.001-08:00

Mustard, common name for a large family of pungent-juiced herbs, important for the many food plants and other crops it produces, and for its representative genus. The family contains about 390 genera and 3,000 species. It is cosmopolitan in distribution, with centers of diversity in the Mediterranean region and southwestern and Central Asia, where about two-thirds of the species occur.

Most members of the mustard family are annual or perennial herbs; a few are shrubs or climbers. The flowers are characteristic and distinctive. Four petals are arranged opposite one another in the form of a cross. Six stamens are arranged in pairs. The filaments of the outer pair are short, whereas those of the two inner pairs are longer. The fruit is typically a capsule with two chambers divided by a false septum; at maturity, it splits in two from the bottom. Many variations on this basic fruit type are found in the family, and characteristics of the fruits are heavily used in distinguishing and classifying the various members.

The mustard family contains a great variety of food plants, but they do not form important parts of staple diets. Best known are the salad and vegetable crops, such as cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, broccoli, and kohlrabi, all of which are varieties of the wild cabbage native to coastal Britain and southern Europe. Table mustard is prepared from powdered seeds of two other species, black mustard and white mustard. Black mustard is a shaggy, many-branched plant, growing to about 1 m (about 3 ft) high, with dark-green lyre-shaped and lanceolate leaves, small yellow flowers, and short seedpods pressed against the stems. White mustard is a somewhat smaller plant, with similar leaves, larger flowers, and bristly pods. Another important species, curled mustard or mustard greens, has large cleft leaves and is used as a vegetable. Turnip, radish, cress, and watercress are other vegetable members of this family.

Scientific classification: Mustard is the common name for the family Brassicaceae (formerly Cruciferae) and its representative genus Brassica. Wild cabbage is classified as Brassica oleracea, black mustard as Brassica nigra, and white mustard as Brassica hirta. Curled mustard, or mustard green, is classified as Brassica juncea variety crispifolia.

Poisonous Plants

2008-11-14T02:51:00.000-08:00

Top, left to right: star-of-Bethlehem, belladonna, poison ivy, poison oak, bottom: yew, oleander, wisteria, and poison hemlock.

Poisonous Plants, plants containing substances that, taken into the body of humans or animals in small or moderate amounts, provoke a harmful reaction resulting in illness or death. Possibly as many as one out of each 100 species of plants is poisonous, but not all have been recognized as such. Dangerous plants are widely distributed in woods (baneberry) and fields (star-of-Bethlehem), swamps (false hellebore) and dry ranges (scrub oak), roadsides (climbing bittersweet) and parks (kalmia), and may be wild (celandine) or cultivated (wisteria). Many ornamental plants, such as oleander, lily of the valley, and mistletoe, are poisonous.

Botanists have no set rules to determine accurately whether any given plant is poisonous. Toxic species are scattered geographically, in habitat, and in botanical relationship. They contain more than 20 kinds of poisonous principles, primarily alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, resinoids, oxalates, photosensitizing compounds, and mineral compounds such as selenium or nitrates accumulated from the soil. The poisonous compound may be distributed throughout all parts of the plant (poison hemlock), or it may accumulate in one part more than any other, such as the root (water hemlock), berry (daphne), or foliage (wild cherries). A plant may vary in toxicity as it grows, generally becoming more toxic with maturity; certain plants, however, can be highly toxic when young and harmless later (cocklebur).

Some active principles cause skin irritation directly (nettle); others bring about an allergenic reaction (poison ivy). Most poisons, however, must enter the body before they act, and in almost all cases this happens when they are eaten. Usually more than 57 g (2 oz) of the poisonous portion of the plant must be eaten by an average adult before poisoning will result (the amount is proportionately less for children). Some plants, however, are toxic in small amounts; for instance, one or two castor beans, the seeds of the castor-oil plant, may kill a child.

After ingestion, the poison may act immediately on the digestive tract (dumbcane, euphorbia, nightshade), producing severe abdominal pain, vomiting, and possibly internal bleeding, or it may be absorbed into the bloodstream. If so, it passes first to the liver, which may be injured. Oxalates crystallize in the kidneys (rhubarb), rupturing the tubules. Some plants affect the heart (oleander). Small amounts of principles in some of these (digitalis) may be used in medicine. Plants containing alkaloids often produce unpleasant or dangerous reactions in the nervous system. Examples are paralysis (poison hemlock), hallucinations (jimsonweed), or heart block (yew). A few poisons act directly within the cells of the body. The best example is cyanide, released from a glycoside in the plant (wild cherries), which prevents cells of the body from using oxygen. In contrast, unusually high levels of nitrates in plants combine with the hemoglobin of the blood so that it can no longer carry oxygen to the body cells. Some reactions are highly specific. Bracken destroys bone marrow, in which blood cells are formed. Saint John’s wort contains a poison that, when ingested by animals, reacts with sunlight to produce severe sunburn and lesions on exposed skin.

Poisonous plants are too numerous to eradicate, and many are highly prized as houseplants or garden ornamentals. If poisoning is suspected, a physician or the local poison control center should be consulted immediately.